Consumer Behaviour Convergence in the European Union

This paper examines and contrasts the attitude to food shopping in Denmark and Spain in both grocery products and white goods used to store and prepare foods. The focus is on the underlying dimensions used by consumers in Copenhagen and Madrid to select food and electrical stores to patronise. The attributes studied are drawn from prior research and are consistent across the two product categories. The research concludes that there is a relatively meaningful set of attributes, which is limited in size, that consumers may employ to make judgements. The salience of individual attributes was shown to vary with the sector under consideration. Contrasts are evident between the attribute ranking given by Danish and Spanish consumers. Particular attention is paid to the manner in which consumers distinguish between ‘service’ and ‘personnel’ in making their store selection. The work is set in the context of the retail internationalisation literature, where it is held that there is a convergence of consumer tastes in different international markers that facilitate operators developing stores overseas. Some evidence is produced to support this idea, though the need for additional cross-cultural and longitudinal studies to test this idea further is recognised.     

Economic Policy within a European Monetary Union

A European Monetary Union (EMU) and the complete transfer of the responsibility for monetary policy to a European central bank are no longer utopian ideas, but a politically highly relevant possibility. The question how economic policy goals can be achieved within such a monetary union is therefore gaining in importance.     

EU Consumer Law Outside the European Union: The Case of Albania

The article examines the emergence of Albanian Consumer Law as an example of the application of the EU consumer acquis beyond the European Union. The argument is that Albanian Consumer Law was established and developed principally as a result of external pressures, whereby as part of the pre-accession process Albania has undertaken an obligation to harmonize its consumer law with EU law. In turn, the weakness of domestic pressures and factors, including a genuine commitment on the part of Albanian policy makers to develop consumer law so as to protect their citizens as consumers, resulted in a fairly slow evolution of consumer law in Albania and the lack of implementation of the initial enactments in practice. However, the empowering of a dedicated Consumer Protection Commission as the main institution in charge of enforcement of consumer law in Albania has led to some enforcement activity and a significant number of consumer protection cases. An analysis of the cases suggests the Commission is using, and upgrading, its powers so as to intervene in a number of different sectors in the economy, including against quite powerful market players.     

The Tradability of Services within Canada and the European Union

This paper analyses bilateral trade flows between the provinces of Canada and between the member states of the European Union using a gravity model. On average, distance is less a hindrance for services trade than for goods trade. Language and regulation differences hamper intra-EU trade significantly. Services trade, in contrast to goods trade, is also hampered by the level of regulation in the importing country. Services trade within Canada as a share of GDP is twice the intra-EU level, and estimates suggest that intra-EU services trade could more than double if the internal market functioned like the Canadian services market.     

出口欧盟非食品类消费品化学风险特征分析

以2010年欧盟非食品类快速预警系统（RAPEX）对我国出口欧盟非食品消费品的通报情况为依据,评估了我国出口非食品类消费品在欧盟不同国家、不同类消费品、不同化学物质的化学风险特征和水平,并提出了我国出口消费品避免化学风险,减少被通报批数的相关建议。     

Consumer Ethics in the European Union: A Comparison of Northern and Southern Views

There is a growing interest in understanding consumer ethical actions in relation to their dealings with firms. This paper examines whether there are differences between Northern and Southern European Union (EU) consumers' perceptions of ethical consumer behaviour using Muncy and Vitell's (1992) Consumer Ethics Scale (CES). The study samples 962 university students across four Northern EU countries (Germany, Denmark, Scotland, The Netherlands) and four Southern EU countries (Portugal, Spain, Italy, Greece). Some differences are identified between the two samples, which might question the ability of organisations to consider the EU as one homogeneous market.     

Subsidiarity in the European Union

Against the backdrop of the highly controversial debate on the future competences of the different European institutions, the principle of subsidiarity, a fundamental principle of European Union law, has recently met with renewed interest. The contributions to this Forum discuss a number of pertinent issues.

---

---

*A longer version of this article is to be found in H. Tomann (ed.): Die Rolle der europ?ischen Institutionen in der Wirtschaftspolitik, Baden-Baden 2006, Nomos, pp. 59-76.     

Consumer protection in the Greek legislation

Greek law only recently has discovered the consumer as an object of protection. Even though there is no specific consumer legislation in Greece, case law and legal writing are becoming concerned with the inferior position of the consumer in the market place and are therefore developing more adequate instruments of protection. EEC legislation forces Greece to reform its law. The paper analyses different areas of law which have been shaped by the consumer impulse, most notably unfair and restrictive trade practices legislation, market regulations, product liability rules, and the prohibition of unfair contract terms. According to the author, implementation in these areas is not quite satisfactory, especially as far as conformity with EEC directives is concerned.

---

Verbraucherschutz in der griechischen Gesetzgebung

Zusammenfassung Der Aufsatz gibt einen Überblick über den gegenwärtigen Stand des Verbraucherschutzes im griechischen Recht. Hier sind noch erhebliche Defizite festzustellen, da sich kein Gesetz speziell mit dem Schutz des Verbrauchers befaßt. Ein wichtiger Impuls für die Verbrauchergesetzgebung geht von der Notwendigkeit Griechenlands aus, sich den EG-Richtlinien anzupassen. Die Rechtsprechung benutzt die Generalklauseln, um den Schutz des Verbrauchers zu verbessern. Im Schrifttum zeigt sich ein verstärktes Interesse für theoretische und praktische Fragen des Verbraucherschutzes. Der Aufsatz untersucht dann im einzelnen die verbraucherpolitische Bedeutung des Wettbewerbsrechts (sowohl Lauterkeits- wie Beschränkungsrecht), des Marktordnungsrechts, des Produkthaftungsrechts und des Rechts der allgemeinen Geschäftsbedingungen. Hingewiesen wird auf Schutzlücken und auf Implementationsdefizite, insbesondere im Verhältnis zum EG-Recht, aber auch auf neue Tendenzen zur Anwendung und Reform des vorhandenen Instrumentariums.

---

---

Elisa Alexandridou is Professor of Commercial Law at the Law Faculty, Demokritos University of Thrace, Queen Olgas 70, Thessaloniki, Greece.     

Consumer protection in betting

Bettors have been virtually ignored by consumer protection bodies and interest groups. Since wagering contracts are unenforceable in British courts consumer law offers an unsatisfactory basis for bettor protection. The Gaming Board for Great Britain and its regulations offer the necessary protection to gaming consumers and betting needs to be brought under a similar regulatory authority. Draft regulations for this are proposed. They accord bookmakers the rights to engage or not engage in betting on any event from moment to moment and to offer any odds which they wish against the runners in the event. But these rights are subject to their being required, when they are betting, to display their odds, and take bets to a self-chosen amount to lose, on all runners in the event from any customer. They would also be required to display the price of a bet on the event with them in directly informative terms.

---

Verbraucherschutz bei Wetten

Zusammenfassung In England sind Personen, die Wetten eingehen, von den Institutionen des Verbraucherschutzes im Grunde genommen völlig übersehen worden. Weil Wett-Verträge nach britischem Recht nicht einklagbar sind, gibt es kaum eine Basis für diese spezielle Form von Verbraucherschutz. Wohl aber bietet die englische Aufsichtsbehörde für das Spielwesen mit ihren Regelungen einen notwendigen Schutz für Personen, die spielen. Der Beitrag plädiert nun dafür, das Wett-Wesen in ähnlicher Weise einer Aufsichtsbehörde zu unterstellen wie das Spielwesen. Regelungen dafür werden vorgeschlagen.Danach sollen Buchmacher als Anbieter von Wett-Verträgen zwar eine weitgehend ungehinderte Möglichkeit haben, Wetten anzubieten. Diese Möglichkeit soll aber geknüpft sein an die Verpflichtung dazu, die Wettverhältnisse offen darzulegen, und an das Recht des Konsumenten, seinen Wetteinsatz selbst zu wählen oder zu bestimmen; außerdem soll kein Teilnehmer der Veranstalter, auf die sich die Wette bezieht, ausgeschlossen werden können. Schließlich müssen die Wett-Bedingungen in einer für jedermann verständlichen Weise offengelegt werden.

---

---

Jack Dowie is Senior Lecturer in Social Sciences at The Open University, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, U.K. Mark Coton is a freelance writer on betting. His address is 4 Roymount Court, Lovelace Road, Surbiton, KT6 6NW, U.K. David Miers is Senior Lecturer in Law at Cardiff Law School, P.O. Box 427 Museum Avenue, Cardiff CF1 1XD, U.K.     

Consumer protection in the Asia-Pacific Region

This report outlines recent developments at an international level affecting consumer policy in the Asia-Pacific Region. Outcomes of a South Pacific Workshop, a United Nations Regional Seminar, and of a training seminar in Vietnam are considered and a range of consumer and systemic problems are outlined. The need for continued expert assistance to developing countries in the region is emphasised.

---

Verbraucherschutz im asiatisch-pazifischen Raum

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag berichtet über neurere internationale Aktivitäten, die die Verbraucherpolitik der Länder der genannten Region betreffen. Er umreißt insbesondere die Ergebnisse eines südpazifischen Workshops in Sydney im Februar 1990, die eines regionalen Seminars über Verbraucherschutz in Bangkok 1990, sowie einer Trainingsveranstaltung für Verbrauchervertreter in Hanoi im Juli/August 1990. Bisher haben lediglich drei Staaten der Region gut entwickelte staatliche Einrichtungen für den Verbraucherschutz, nämlich Australien, Japan und Neuseeland. Diese Länder haben bereits mit Hilfeleistungen an die anderen Länder der Region begonnen, werden aber in Zukunft noch stärker gefordert sein. Darüber hinaus betont der Autor, daß auch die westlichen Industrieländer eine größere Rolle bein Aufbau des Verbraucherschutzes dieser Länder spielen sollten, zumal sie es waren, die einen Teil der Verbraucherprobleme dieser Region verursacht haben.

---

---

John T. D. Wood is Director of the Federal Bureau of Consumer Affairs, Robert Garran Office, Barton, A.C.T. 2600 Australia.     

Minimum implementation of minimum directives? Consumer protection in Austria in the context of European integration

Once the EEA Agreement takes effect, consumer protection rules in Austria will have to conform to EC standards; the same holds true, if and when Austria is admitted to membership of the EC. The paper examines the general background of consumer protection rules in Austria compared to EC legislation, and puts this into the perspective of the Austrian efforts for integration. This is followed by an evaluation of the influence exerted by the EC internal market policy on consumer protection matters in Austria and a treatment of some specific problems concerning the implementation of EC rules in the country, in particular as regards product liability and package travel.     

Consumer involvement and acceptance of biotechnology in the European Union: a specific focus on Spain and the UK

Biotechnology stands out as a clear‐cut example of an industry where legislation on new technologies has been shown to be linked with public attitudes. Indeed, consumer consultation has played a leading role in the acceptance of genetically modified (GM) food as well as in government policy and legislation. This paper examines the issue of consumer consultation by analysing how public opinion has conditioned the acceptance of GM food in the European Union in general and specifically in Spain and the UK. We draw upon the evidence of two Eurobarometer surveys (46.1 and 52.1) to argue that consumer decision making on new technologies is an information‐dependent factor explaining consumer rejection to non‐transparent introduction of GM food. Individuals feel ill‐prepared to make decisions and rely on trusted information advisors such as consumer organizations. Findings suggest significant information dependency as well as widespread heterogeneity in attitudes towards the applications of biotechnology. Finally, the role played by information channels indicates that consumer participation should precede the adoption of communication policies, as they might need to adapt to the specific cultural characteristics of each country.     

Immeasurable inequality in the European Union

Over time, the European Union has acquired more and more of the attributes of a state and, in economic terms, it can arguably be considered a single market. Nevertheless, the differences between member states are enormous. Small, rich countries, such as Luxembourg, contrast sharply with big, poor ones, such as Romania. Despite this, many indicators are published which refer to the EU as a whole, including measures of income inequality. According to Eurostat1, the ratio between the incomes of the top and bottom quintiles is 5. But is this figure even roughly adequate? This paper will argue that it vastly underestimates the true level of inequality in the EU which, unfortunately, is immeasurable in the twofold sense that it is both hard to measure and extremely high.     

The European Monetary Union

The final stage of the European Monetary Union (EMU) is approaching; the single currency goes into effect on January 1, 1999. The article discusses the far-reaching ramifications of the euro in the context of the international monetary system. Current challenges facing the implementation of the new currency are addressed such as unemployment, high budget deficits, and general skepticism both EU members and non-members have expressed. The argument is made that acceptance and widespread use of the single currency will provide a framework for a deeper economic and political integration across Europe. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Corporate Taxes in the European Union

The enlargement of the European Union in 2004 and 2007 by a number of countries with comparatively low corporate tax rates – seen by some as representing an unfair competitive advantage – has refuelled the debate on corporate taxation in Europe. The present Forum highlights a number of pertinent issues and discusses the challenges implied for European corporate tax policy. *The authors are indebted to Andreas Reutter for helpful comments. **The findings, interpretations and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author. They should not be attributed to the European Commission. The author wishes to thank Anton Jevcav for valuable comments. ? European Communities, 2007.     

Consumer Insolvency in the European Legal Context

Consumer credit, as an important aspect of the free movement of capital, has for a long time now been subject to European Union regulations. However, one important aspect of consumer credit, over-indebtedness, has not been acknowledged in the Consumer Credit directives of 1978 and 2009, nor is there any other European Union law instrument that addresses over-indebtedness or insolvency of consumers. The only European-level document addressing the problem of over-indebtedness of ordinary people is the Council of Europe Recommendation of 2007. In European Union law, over-indebtedness can and should be approached from several angles. The Insolvency Regulation (2000) does not directly address situations facing the consumer debtor and leaves it up to the discretion of the Member States to include or exclude insolvency proceedings for consumer debtors regarding the scope of the Regulation. There can be little doubt that the European Union has a legal basis for action in this field, and it has also used its competence in a number of related issues, such as general insolvency law and enforcement of judgments. Case C-461/11, in which Advocate General delivered her opinion on Sept 13^th, 2012 shows that national insolvency procedures for natural persons may constitute a restriction on the freedom of movement. This article argues that, even in the absence of a European Union law instrument, the Member States should recognize debt adjustment judgments made in another Member State and that there is a need for a regulation in the European Union law in this field.