The impact of migration on rural poverty and inequality: a case study in China

Large numbers of agricultural labor moved from the countryside to cities after the economic reforms in China. Migration and remittances play an important role in transforming the structure of rural household income. This article examines the impact of rural‐to‐urban migration on rural poverty and inequality in a mountainous area of Hubei province using the data of a 2002 household survey. Since migration income is a potential substitute for farm income, we present counterfactual scenarios of what rural income, poverty, and inequality would have been in the absence of migration. Our results show that, by providing alternatives to households with lower marginal labor productivity in agriculture, migration leads to an increase in rural income. In contrast to many studies that suggest that the increasing share of nonfarm income in total income widens inequality, this article offers support for the hypothesis that migration tends to have egalitarian effects on rural income for three reasons: (1) migration is rational self‐selection—farmers with higher expected return in agricultural activities and/or in local nonfarm activities choose to remain in the countryside while those with higher expected return in urban nonfarm sectors migrate; (2) households facing binding constraints of land supply are more likely to migrate; (3) poorer households benefit disproportionately from migration.     

Rural–Urban Impacts of CAP Measures in Greece: An Inter‐regional SAM Approach

This paper evaluates the inter‐regional impacts of CAP measures implemented in the rural town of Archanes (Crete, Greece), an area which received considerable EU Agricultural Guarantee and rural development funds during the 1990s. A hybrid, three‐area Social Accounting Matrix (SAM) with three groups of households defined by income level is constructed to describe inter‐linkages between three rural–urban localities, namely the rural area of Archanes, the less‐developed, agriculturally dependent, neighbouring rural area of N. Kazantzakis, and the adjacent urban centre of Heraklion. Results are reported on the diffusion patterns of economic impacts generated by three types of CAP measure: farm income support; aids to increased agricultural productivity; aids to economic diversification. These show that the diffusion of policy‐induced economic impacts from Archanes is lower than might be expected for a small open local economy, and that benefits leak primarily to Heraklion and marginally to rural N. Kazantzakis. Finally, generated income benefits seem to accrue mostly in favour of high‐income households, especially in the case of Guarantee subsidies.     

Nonfarm diversification,poverty, economic mobility,and income inequality: a case study in village India

This article assembles data at the all‐India level and for the village of Palanpur, Uttar Pradesh, to document the growing importance, and influence, of the nonfarm sector in the rural economy between the early 1980s and late 2000s. The suggestion from the combined National Sample Survey and Palanpur data is of a slow process of nonfarm diversification, whose distributional incidence, on the margin, is increasingly pro‐poor. The village‐level analysis documents that the nonfarm sector is not only increasing incomes and reducing poverty, but appears as well to be breaking down long‐standing barriers to mobility among the poorest segments of rural society. Efforts by the government of India to accelerate the process of diversification could thus yield significant returns in terms of declining poverty and increased income mobility. The evidence from Palanpur also shows, however, that at the village‐level a significant increase in income inequality has accompanied diversification away from the farm. A growing literature argues that such a rise in inequality could affect the fabric of village society, the way in which village institutions function and evolve, and the scope for collective action at the village level. Failure to keep such inequalities in check could thus undermine the pro‐poor impacts from the process of structural transformation currently underway in rural India.     

Income distribution in rice–growing villages during the post-Green Revolution periods: the Philippine case, 1985 and 1998

This paper aims to examine changes in household income sources and its impact on household income distribution in the post‐Green Revolution periods in 1985 and 1998 in the rural Philippines. We found that there has been a structural shift of household income away from farm in favor of nonfarm labor income sources. This finding indicates that rural development is being led by nonfarm sectors. Such a shift has resulted in an increase in household income inequality as the distribution of nonfarm income has become less equal over time and was markedly more unequal than that of farm income in 1998.     

农村劳动力结构性短缺的影响因素分析——基于湖南省224份问卷的调查

随着农村劳动力不同质的转移,大量农村地区出现了劳动力老龄化、妇女化、低素质化等现象,留守的农村劳动力出现了严重的结构性短缺,农村劳动力一定程度的畸形转移与结构性缺失,使得农村发展过渡到了一个瓶颈阶段。文章基于224户农户的调查数据,运用因子分析方法,对影响农村劳动力结构性短缺的因素进行了实证分析。模型结果表明:农村劳动力结构性短缺受人力资本、家庭、收入、就业因素的影响。其中,(1)人力资本因素,人力资本因素的贡献率是最大的,留守农户拥有技能、接受培训与否直接影响着农村劳动力的结构;(2)家庭因素,家庭年纯收入、家庭人口数量、土地经营情况对农村劳动力结构性短缺的影响较大,(3)收入因素,本人月收入的影响权重较大;(4)就业因素,就业因素的影响力度较小,农户从事的行业以及就业地点间接影响农村劳动力结构性短缺。针对模型结果,提出几点政策建议。     

Earnings Mobility of Rural versus Urban Workers in Canada

The policy choice to enhance household income for poor, working families depends on the dynamics of individual earnings and their direct, albeit imperfect, link to household income levels. This paper assesses the factors affecting the dynamics of low pay for rural versus nonrural individuals in Canada. Approximately one-quarter of the rural workers sampled in Statistics Canada's SLID data receive a wage less than two-thirds of the median wage for the period and the percentage is increasing over time. In contrast, an average of 17% of workers in urban areas receives wages below this threshold. The low pay in rural areas is also "longer lasting," either because the probability of an upward wage move is less, because the probability of moving out of the labor force is less, or because the probability of moving down from high pay is greater. Thus, direct mechanisms such as a minimum wage are likely to be more effective in rural areas. The higher probability of a move downward (either to low pay or out of the labor force) may be associated with greater seasonal work in rural areas. Hence, policy to address rural low pay may need to take seasonality into account more than in urban labor markets.     

The Determinants of Rural Livelihood Diversification in Developing Countries

The diversity of rural livelihoods in low income developing countries is receiving increased attention in discussions about rural poverty reduction. This paper explores just one facet of livelihood diversity, namely the reasons for households to adopt multiple livelihood strategies. The distinction is made between diversification of necessity and diversification by choice. Six determinants of diversification are considered in the light of that distinction, and these are seasonality, risk, labour markets, credit markets, asset strategies, and coping strategies. The paper concludes that under the precarious conditions that characterise rural survival in many low income countries, diversification has positive attributes for livelihood security that outweigh negative connotations it may possess. Policy should facilitate rather than inhibit diversity. Diverse rural livelihoods are less vulnerable than undiversified ones.     

精准扶贫视角下县域农村收入差距问题研究——基于四川省88个贫困县的分析

[目的]为测算四川省贫困县农村收入差距并探析其影响因素,以期为缩小其农村收入差距提出有效的对策。[方法]文章使用2013年《四川省农村贫困监测报告》数据,运用离差法对贫困县农村收入差距进行了测度,并通过分位数回归,对贫困县农村收入差距的影响因素进行了分析。[结果]受教育程度在所有分位数上均具有显著缩小农村收入差距的作用;在0.25分位数上,劳动能力及道路交通便捷度对农村收入差距具有非常显著的缩小效应,但随着分位数的提高,道路交通便捷度对收入差距的缩小效应逐渐减小,劳动能力的收入贫困差距缩小效应也变得不再显著。[结论]无论是在农村收入差距小还是大的贫困县,实施农村教育振兴政策均有助于缩小农村收入差距;在农村收入差距较小的贫困县,在农村地区加大道路交通基础设施投入和积极组织劳动力技能培训将有助于减小农村收入差距。     

Welfare implications of reduced government subsidies to farm families: accounting for fringe benefits

In the past three decades, farm families have relied on government payments and off‐farm income to reduce income risk and increase total household income. Studies have shown that, as the income effect dominates, government payments tend to reduce off‐farm labor of farm operators and spouses. But that may not be true if one accounts for fringe benefits associated with off‐farm employment. Additionally, with looming budget deficits and the possibility of a reduction in decoupled government payments, farm families may be facing an altered economic environment. Our study addresses this issue by examining the links between government farm program payments and the ever‐important role of fringe benefits in the off‐farm employment of farm couples. Results from farm‐level data actually show that the marginal effect of government payments on hours worked off‐farm will decrease in magnitude when accounting for fringe benefits, ceteris paribus. These results support the notion that farm households’ welfare loss stemming from reduced decoupled payments may be overstated when models exclude fringe benefits from the estimation of off‐farm labor supply.     

Pathways out of poverty in lagging regions: evidence from rural western China

How to reduce poverty in lagging regions remains much debated and underserved with solid empirical evidence. This study illustrates an empirical methodology to analyze the pathways households followed out of poverty and to explore their potential in the future using 2000–2004 rural household panel data from two lagging provinces of China, Inner Mongolia and Gansu. It finds that rising labor productivity in agriculture has been key in understanding poverty reduction in rural lagging areas of these provinces and that it still holds much promise. Circular migration has also been important in Gansu, though less so in Inner Mongolia. On average, rural diversification has not proven to contribute much to poverty reduction and income transfers and agricultural tax abolishment have only helped at the margin. The findings from these two case studies highlight that the scope for reducing poverty in rural lagging regions can still be substantial in agriculture, also when nonagriculture drives national growth.     

Occupational diversification as an adaptation to rainfall variability in rural India

Occupational diversification among household members in rural India is investigated as an adaptation strategy against the risks arising from the variability of local rainfall. Nationally representative household‐level survey data are combined with the coefficient of variation of rainfall constructed based on historical rainfall data at the district level. The analysis finds that high rainfall variability has significant negative effects on the agricultural specialization of within‐household occupational choices. This result is reinforced by the finding that improved access to irrigation, education, credit, roads, and postal services, is associated with a lower occupational diversification within families and a greater specialization of household members in agricultural‐related employment.     

How has microcredit supported agriculture? Evidence using panel data from Bangladesh

Improving agricultural productivity has received a greater attention in recent years amid concerns about rising food insecurity, population pressures, and climate change. Many believe that better access to institutional credit, spanning microcredit as well as commercial and agricultural banks, can help rural households smooth risks, and access inputs and other technology to modernize agriculture and improve farm/nonfarm linkages. We use recently augmented household panel data spanning over 20 years in Bangladesh to examine the effects of rural credit expansion (both microcredit and formal bank channels) on outcomes for agricultural households. We find that microcredit has benefited households with lower landownings, raising agricultural income from activities such as livestock rearing that require less land, as well as nonfarm income diversification for all households, but with the strongest effect for landless or near‐landless households. We do not find effects of microcredit on crop income, but do, however, find that reported supply‐side credit constraints significantly lower crop income. Borrowing by both men and women has contributed to nonfarm income growth for marginal farmers, but only men's borrowing has contributed to nonfarm income growth among higher landowning groups.     

FARM DIVERSIFICATION AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT

Under a new policy initiative, grants will be payable for the setting up of ancillary businesses on or adjacent to farms in the UK. While this initiative is to be welcomed, it is suggested that more could be done to develop the rural economy as a whole. Farm diversification grants, modelled on previous farm capital grant schemes, are focused on a narrow range of activities, for which demand is likely to be limited, and are most appropriate for the larger farm. They imply that farmine will continue to be the main activity and run counter to current trends. The goals of rural development and farm income support might be pursued more effectively by encouraging the creation in rural areas of off-farm employment, unrelated to agriculture, and suitable for members of families on low-income farms.     

非农就业对家庭营林劳动力投工女性化的影响研究

根据劳动力转移新经济学理论和家庭内部劳动力分工理论,基于2018年浙江省14个县(市)681户营林调查户样本数据,运用Tobit模型分析了非农就业对营林劳动力女性化的影响。结果表明:非农就业对女性劳动力单位面积营林投工量和女性营林投工比例具有显著正向影响;非农就业对不同林种营林投入女性化有明显差异,对经济林农户家庭营林投工女性化有显著正向影响,而对用材林农户家庭营林投工女性化作用不明显。提出完善农村劳动力社会保障制度;加强农村女性劳动力营林生产技能培训;发挥女性劳动力的营林生产优势等建议。     

农地证券化、劳动力转移与城乡收入分配

研究目的:通过建立反映农地资产变现能力作用机制的城乡二元结构模型,为中国城市化过程中的劳动力暂时性转移和城乡收入分配恶化现象提供新的理论解释。研究方法:通过数值模拟和统计检验方法,分析部门劳动生产率、转移成本和土地融资变现能力对劳动力转移数量、城乡收入分配的影响。研究结果:(1)农业和非农部门的技术进步都会对农村剩余劳动力产生正向影响;(2)清晰界定的土地产权会通过增强资产融资变现能力对农村劳动力迁移产生促进作用;(3)农地证券化增强土地资产的融资变现能力,为劳动力完全转移提供生活重置成本,有助于缩小城乡收入差距。研究结论:农地证券化有助于农户克服资本约束,实现劳动力的永久性转移,形成缩小城乡收入差距的长效机制。     

The role of nonfarm income in coping with the effects of drought in southern Mozambique

To reduce their dependence on subsistence agriculture, farm households in rural Africa may diversify their income sources by participating in the nonfarm sector. In years of drought, nonfarm income can also be part of the coping strategies. A multivariate sample selection model was used to analyze three years of data from a nationally representative household survey in Mozambique. The analysis was guided by the following three questions. During a drought year: (1) Do households increase their participation in nonfarm activities? (2) Are poorer households as likely as others to participate in and benefit from nonfarm activities? and (3) Which factors are associated with higher nonfarm incomes? The results suggest that households are more likely to engage in at least one nonfarm income‐generating activity during a drought year. Although poorer households are more likely to engage in nonfarm activities, they are less likely to participate in nonfarm activities of high return. The results suggest that policies reducing entry barriers (e.g., improved road infrastructure, micro‐credit schemes, and livestock promotion programs) and increasing education levels can facilitate income diversification, thus allowing rural households to better cope with the effects of drought. When designing polices, care must be taken to avoid exacerbating income inequality by targeting measures toward poorer and female‐headed households.     

我国农村劳动力的就业意向选择分析——以统筹城乡综合配套改革试验区重庆市为例

农村劳动力的就业意向选择问题研究是对农村富余劳动力转移就业问题研究的进一步深化。该文以统筹城乡综合配套改革试验区重庆农村劳动力资源为主要研究对象,以其当前就业意向性选择为切入点,对影响农村劳动力当前就业意向的不同偏好因素进行分析,对其相关特征变量进行了详细的描述性统计分析,并采用多元Logit模型进行实证分析。研究结果表明,重庆山区农村劳动力当前就业意向存在着明显的性别差异,男性农村劳动力素质总体上优于农村女性劳动力,两者平均年龄仍较高,男性农村劳动力更倾向于外出务工或经商就业,但总体收入仍不理想。务农就业意向的农村劳动力与务工、自主创业或经商就业意向的农村劳动力相比,在年龄、耕地、收入等变量方面存在显著劣势差异。农村劳动力的人力资本、家庭禀赋和所在村劳动力人口数等变量对其不同的就业意向选择具有重要影响和显著差异。     

Agritourism and off‐farm work: survival strategies for small farms

This study considers agritourism and off‐farm work as income diversification choices simultaneously and analyzes factors influencing such choices. Further, the study assesses the impact of agritourism, off‐farm work, and both on gross cash farm income and total farm household income. We utilized large set of nationwide farm survey data and selectivity‐based multinomial choice model. An important finding of our study is that small farms have higher household income if they choose both income diversification strategies rather than a single strategy. Results suggest that education, age of the operator, financial condition, and location of the farm are important factors driving income diversification alternatives. Finally, our study indicates that accounting for selectivity is essential to ensure unbiased and consistent estimates.     

数字普惠金融对农村内部收入差距的影响研究——基于生计资源多元化视角的经验分析

目的 在推进农民农村共同富裕道路进程中,识别数字普惠金融缩小农村内部收入差距的作用,并从农户生计资源多元化配置视角探索其作用机制。方法 文章合并使用县域数字普惠金融指数和中国家庭追踪调查数据（CFPS）,构造衡量农户收入不平等程度的相对剥夺指数,采用面板Tobit模型考察数字普惠金融对农村内部收入差距的影响,采用中介效应模型从生计资源多元化配置视角考察其作用机制。结果 （1）数字普惠金融能够有效减缓农户的相对收入剥夺程度,进而缩小农村内部收入差距,数字普惠金融指数每上升1%,农户相对收入剥夺水平下降7.87%,通过一系列稳健性检验后该结果依然可信;（2）生计资源多元化是数字普惠金融缩小农村内部收入差距的重要作用机制,数字普惠金融缩差效应的11.85%可由该作用渠道来解释;（3）数字普惠金融对农村内部收入差距缩减效应也具有明显的异质性,男性户主和45岁以下户主的农户、非农就业占比高和兼业化程度大的农户获得的数字普惠金融缩差“红利”更大。结论 作为新型金融供给方式,政府应大力推进农村数字普惠金融发展,因地制宜实施农村数字金融政策,鼓励农户生计资源多元化配置,多渠道应对风险提高收入水平,进而缩小农村内部收入差距助推共同富裕。     

Off‐farm labor market decisions and agricultural shocks among rural households in Kenya

Using household level data from rural Kenya, this article explores whether and how farm households respond to unfavorable agricultural production environments, including any ex post adjustments in off‐farm labor supply in response to unexpected weather shocks. While controlling for a wide range of educational, demographic, and other locational factors, we examine how long‐term weather conditions and specific rainfall shocks influence a household's decision to engage in, and their earnings from, the off‐farm labor market. We find that rural households engage in off‐farm work as a long‐term strategy to deal with the effects of anticipated weather conditions on their farming operations. The analysis does not reveal major short‐term adjustments in off‐farm engagement as a result of specific, unexpected rainfall shocks; these households do however rely on remittance income and petty agricultural wage labor under these circumstances. Holding other factors constant, and conditional on participation, households in areas with a more productive local agriculture tend to earn more from off‐farm work especially in the informal/business sector than their counterparts in regions with a less productive agriculture. As expected, a vibrant local economy in the form of public investment increases the probability of off‐farm participation.