Group Consensus: The Impact of Multiple Dialogues

The research results on group consensus have been ambiguous within the field of Group Support Systems (GSSs). Some research studies have shown that groups using multiple communication channels produce more ideas, and more unique ideas than groups using a single communication channel. In addition, a second set of research findings have shown that groups using GSSs report group members hold less consensus with the group's decision. This research studies more closely how these two characteristics; communication channel and consensus, interact. Specifically, can less consensus be a function of the choice of channels used in problem solving. The results show that groups using a single communication channel generate more actual consensus than groups using multiple communication channels. Furthermore, the single channel discussions provide more integrative comments and these integrative comments may help explain the difference in consensus. These results suggest that those striving for consensus from group members should consider production methods used to create the information that is to be used in the decision.     

A framework for thinking about Group Decision Support Systems (GDSS)

Strategic problem solving in organizations is a social process that disturbs established social relationships. Maintaining a negotiated social order is crucial to political feasibility and to emotional commitment from the participants in relation to a solution package. However, Group Decision Support Systems that attend overly to managing social order risk group think through bounded vision. This may be avoided if emotional commitment is also encouraged through participants experiencing the problem situation from multiple perspectives and in relation to alternative solution strategies. Commitment depends upon both means/ends rationality and procedural rationality. This acknowledges the balance in providing support to a group with respect to the negotiation of social order, with the more traditional group decision support for socially negotiating order out of the problem situation. This article argues that effective Group Decision Support Systems must attend to both aspects of creating order. OR modelling methods and the support that can be provided by modern micro-computers offer a new way forward—models can be toys that a group can play with together, enabling them to create knowledge as well as use it.     

The Effects of Prior Spending on Future Spending Decisions: The Role of Acquisition Liabilities and Payments

Research in mental accounting shows that prior spending influences a consumer's decision to make a new spending decision (Heath and Soll 1996, Soman 2001). In particular, greater spending in a particular category reduces the likelihood of further spending in that category. In the present research, we decompose spending into two distinct episodes—the acquisition liability episode during which a purchase is made accompanied by a commitment to pay (e.g., using a credit card) and the payment episode during which the consumer's wealth actually gets depleted (e.g., paying the credit card bill). Using a controlled laboratory experiment and real world data from a group of consumers, we replicate earlier findings that prior spending influences a pending spending decision, but also show that the location of both the acquisition liability episode and the payment episode play a role. Our results contribute to an understanding of the dynamic mental accounting of acquisition liability and actual outflows.     

Word-of-author advertising and the consumer: An empirical analysis of the quality of product brands noted by authors of popular cultural works

The term word-of-author advertising has been used to refer to the fact that writers of screenplays, television dramas, novels, and other popular cultural products are using brand names in the texts of their works. The study draws upon data from 265Consumer Reports tests conducted from 1950–1979 to determine the quality of the products associated with brands which are frequently used in this way as compared to those which are not. The results indicate that in a majority of the tests, product quality was higher for the frequently used brand names in word-of-author advertising, but a substantial minority of test reports proved to be exceptions to this general finding. Implications of the study findings are drawn for consumer policy, especially as it relates to educational programs.

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Werbung in populären Kunstwerken und der Verbraucher: eine empirische Analyse der Qualität solcher Produktmarken, die in populären Kunstwerken genannt werden

Zusammenfassung Der Begriff Word-of-Author-Werbung bezieht sich auf die Fälle, wo Autoren von Bühnen- und Fernsehstücken, von Romanen und anderen populären Kunstprodukten in ihren Texten bekannte Markennamen verwenden. Der Beitrag berichtet über eine empirische Studie anhand von 265 Tests der amerikanischen ZeitschriftConsumer Reports aus der Zeit von 1950 bis 1979, um Marken, deren Name in dem genannten Sinne häufig verwendet werden, zu vergleichen mit solchen Marken, wo dies nicht der Fall ist.Die Ergebnisse zeigen, daß die Mehrzahl der häufig verwendeten Marken zwar tatsächlich ein höheres Qualitätsurteil erzielte als andere Produkte. Dies gilt aber nicht für alle: Eine beachtliche Minderheit von Marken macht eine Ausnahme.Abschließend werden einige verbraucherpolitische Schlußfolgerungen gezogen und insbesondere gefordert, die untersuchte Art von Konsumgüterwerbung stärker als bisher in der werbekundlichen Verbrauchererziehung zu berücksichtigen.

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Monroe Friedman is Professor of Psychology at Eastern Michigan University, Ypsilanti, MI 48197, USA.     

The Design of GSS-Enabled Interventions: A Habermasian Perspective

This article frames GSS-enabled interventions as electronically supported discourses, designed and evaluated against a gold standard of ideal speech in a perfect communication environment. The objectives are, firstly, to develop a model of GSS-enabled interventions based on Habermas' theory of communicative action, and secondly, to apply the model as a problem-structuring device to the conceptual problem of designing the strategic evaluation of a comprehensive urban plan. The model, known as the VC (validity claims) Model, provides separate evaluative criteria for personal, social and technical aspects. The criteria for successful GSS-enabled interventions may be summarized as personal commitment (validated by personal truthfulness or sincerity), to a social consensus (validated by rightness), for informed action (validated by objective truth). Detailed criteria (viz., goal, strategy, procedure, issues, problems) are developed for each type of validity claim and matched to the technologies available. The result is a detailed brief illustrating the design of a GSS-enabled strategic urban planning intervention, including a sample agenda for the GSS-supported meeting and the GSS tools that will be employed.     

Towards an ethical dimension of decision making in organizations

There is a growing need to increase our understanding of ethical decision making in U.S. based organizations. The authors examine the complexity of creating uniform ethical standards even when the meaning of ethical behavior is being debated. The nature of these controversies are considered, and three important dimensions for ethical decision making are discussed: leaders with integrity and a strong sense of social responsibility, organization cultures that foster dialogue and dissent, and organizations that are willing to reflect on and learn from their actions. Leaders with integrity demonstrate consistency between vision and action that promotes trust, regularly concern themselves with developing moral standards, and are proactive agents of change in an increasingly complex world. Organizational cultures that support dialogue suspend judgments and increase their capacity to think together towards new levels of understanding. Ethical concepts evolve in these organizational cultures, and actions are informed and responsible. Organizations that reflect on their actions engage in double loop learning so that the time taken to reflect on the past and present leads to a more judicious and ethical future. In essence, the authors point to organizational guidelines for ethical decision making that lead to an increase in members' capacity to think and act ethically. Jonathan Z. Gottlieb is a consultant to organizations and a Ph.D. Candidate in Organizational Psychology. His interests include organization redesign, leadership and team development, ethics, and role definition for organization development practitioners. Jyotsna Sanzgiri is Dean of Organizational Psychology Programs at the California School of Professional Psychology — Alameda. She received her Ph.D. in business Administration and her M.B.A. Her interests include organizational theory and core values across cultures, and the historical underpinnings of organization development and behavior.     

Does Greater Amount of Information Always Bolster Attitudinal Resistance?

Previous research suggests that attitudinal resistance to information that challenges a prior evaluation increases with the amount of information underlying the prior evaluation. We revisit this proposition in a context in which a set of important claims about a target brand are presented either alone—a lower amount of isolated information—or along with other favorable, but less important claims—a higher amount of embedded information. Results from two experiments show that when the challenge occurs immediately after the initial evaluation, a greater amount of embedded initial information does produce greater attitudinal resistance. However, when the challenge occurs after a delay, a lesser amount of isolated information produces greater attitudinal resistance. The findings qualify previous assumptions about the role of prior information in attitudinal resistance, and support a constructive view of judgment revision and attitudinal resistance.     

Individual strategies in a market entry game

Quantitatively trained Ph.D. students participated in three replications of a 20-trial market entry game in which each agent has two pure strategies—to enter the market or stay out of the market—and the individual payoff depends on the size of the set of active agents entering the market. With experience, subjects adhered more strictly to pure strategies, which although markedly different from one to the other combined to form distributions supporting a Nash equilibrium solution to the game.     

Corporate democracy and the rights of shareholders

Some have argued that because of weaknesses in corporate democracy, there is widespread abuse of shareholders' rights in American securities markets. I describe a number of horror stories that shareholders might tell to support this claim. Then I argue that despite appearances to the contrary, there is not widespread abuse of shareholders' rights in American securities markets. This is because (i) corporations, when doing things that look abusive, are generally violating neither the legal rights nor the charter rights of shareholders and (ii) shareholders — in their role as shareholders — have no other rights than these. William B. Irvine is Assistant Professor of Philosophy at Wright State University. He is the author of The Ethics of Investing, Journal of Business Ethics, vol. 6, no. 3.     

Strategy and Structure in Information-Intensive Markets: The Relationship Between Marketing and IT

This paper discusses the relationship between the traditionalfunctions of Marketing and Information Technology (IT) from theperspective of the emerging information-intensive marketsthat characterize the environment faced by most modern organizations.First, a conceptual framework is presented for understandingthe range of information-intensive strategies (built aroundexploiting the Customer Information File as the key corporateasset) that are increasingly the determinants of competitivesuccess. Next, the appropriate organizational structure to supportthese strategies is proposed—one in which the historicalseparation between marketing and IT is abandoned in favor ofa new structure organized around a core set of information-processingactivities. Finally, the characteristics of this new organizationare described—in particular its role as a market-drivenlearning organization and, increasingly, as a living, biologicalorganism.     

International health law and consumer autonomy

Today, international health law and international consumer law are developing in the same direction and with much interaction. But the developments are not uniform. As international health law takes consumer protection into account, it tends to increase the gap between a Western international law and a Third World international law, and to emphasize the negative harmonization approach towards international health protection.Another problem concerns the unification of the rules of international health law and those of international consumer law. This problem is particularly difficult to solve, as the rules of international consumer law themselves are still far from being unified.

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Internationales Gesundheitsrecht und Verbraucherautonomie

Zusammenfassung Internationales Gesundheitsrecht und internationales Verbraucherrecht entwickeln sich heute in gleicher Richtung, obwohl sie anderen Quellen entspringen. Die wechselseitige Durchdringung nimmt zu, auch wenn die Enwicklung nicht einheitlich vor sich geht. Je mehr das internationale Gesundheitsrecht den Verbraucherschutz in sich aufnimmt, destomehr trennt es sich in ein Recht für entwickelte Staaten und ein solches für Dritte Welt-Länder. Ein vorwiegend negativ-abwehrender Zugang herrscht vor.Ein anderes Problem beinhaltet die Harmonisierung der Regeln des internationalen Gesundheits- und des internationalen Verbraucherrechts. Dies ist schon deshalb schwer erreichbar, weil das Verbraucherrecht selbst nicht einheitlich vorgeht. Die Probleme verschärfen sich, wenn man — ohne eine internationale Verbraucherinstitution wie die WHO — eine gemeinsame positive Gesundheitspolitik für Verbraucher erreichen will.

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Michel Bélanger teaches health law at the U.F.R. de Droit Public et Science Politique, Université de Bordeaux I, Avenue Léon Duguit, F 33604 Pessac, France.     

Geography and International Inequalities: The Impact of New Technologies*

Some writers have predicted that new technologies mean the death of distance, allowing suitably skilled economies to converge with high income countries. This paper evaluates this claim. It argues that geography matters for international income inequalities, and that new technologies will change, but not abolish this dependence. Some activities may become more entrenched in high income countries than they are at present. Others—where information can be readily codified and digitized—will relocate, but typically only to a subset of lower income countries. These countries will benefit, but other countries will continue to experience the costs of remoteness.     

Consciousness, Spirituality and Right Decision/Negotiation in Purposeful Complex Adaptive Systems

Both cybernetic and self-organizing, purposeful complex adaptive systems (PCAS) express purpose by solving problems defined by choosing and delivering values to participants as operational goals through decision making. Individuals, groups, organizations, and economies are PCAS. Here we focus on indviduals and groups. Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) is a universal (culture independent) general problem solving, formal modeling/design framework for PCAS that can be computer implemented in same time/same place or telework modes. Formally, in ESD sets of elements and their relations modeling a PCAS evolve through cybernetics/self organization. Spirituality and the concept of right decision/negotiation in PCAS are discussed in relation to consciousness. Rightness comes from spirituality, i.e., consciousness experiencing oneness. Oneness is integrally bound with love; hence the term oneness/love. Through right decision/negotiation PCAS try to realize their ultimate purpose to live Two (the relative, the process of all there is) as One (the absolute, all there is). Oneness/love, connectedness to One, promotes problem solving and negotiation - expressed formally in the ESD problem representation - that is at the same time right. Simply put, right problem solving requires oneness/love and delivers oneness/love. Computer and receiver modes of consciousness are discussed in relation to oneness/love and its absence experienced as separateness/fear. Ways to transit from the latter to the former are considered. P.L. Yu's Habitual Domain (HD) framework is introduced and discussed in relation to ESD. Evolutionary heuristics for evolution of an ESD right problem representation through cybernetics/self-organization are presented based on combined HD and ESD concepts. Then operational procedures for defining and validating a right problem for an individual or group and associated right decision/negotiation outcome are considered. Thus, the work contributes to procedural rationality - how decisions should be or are made - in purposeful complex adaptive systems. The paper suggests that for humans to live fully (awake) is to live in our love-based spirituality, in the moment, consciousness experiencing oneness/love at the edge of chaos, challenged in our purpose to live Two as One by spiritual or right decision/negotiation through cybernetics/self-organization, i.e., problem solving under oneness. Artificial agents in PCAS may participate in right decision/negotiation. They may in principle have consciousness but the nature of the subjective experience is unclear.     

Meta-learning about business ethics: Building honorable business school communities

We propose extending business ethics education beyond the formal curriculum to the hidden curriculum where messages about ethics and values are implicitly sent and received. In this meta-learning approach, students learn by becoming active participants in an honorable business school community where real ethical issues are openly discussed and acted upon. When combined with formal ethics instruction, this meta-learning approach provides a framework for a proposed comprehensive program of business ethics education.Linda Klebe Trevino is Associate Professor of Organizational Behavior at the Mary Jean and Frank B. Smeal College of Business Administration, The Pennsylvania State University. Her research focuses on the management of ethical-unethical behavior in organizations and justice in disciplinary situations.Donald L. McCabe is Associate Professor of Management at the Graduate School of Management, Rutgers — the State University of New Jersey. His research focuses on decision making and interpretive processes under conditions of uncertainty, and the management of ethical behavior in organizations.     

Approval voting in scientific and engineering societies

Approval voting is a system in which members can vote for as many candidates as they like in multicandidate elections. In 1987 and 1988, four scientific and engineering societies, collectively comprising some 350,000 members, used this election reform for the first time. Their reasons for adoption varied but centered around efforts to elect consensus candidates. Approval voting has indeed elected so-called Condorcet candidates, who can defeat all other candidates in pairwise contests. Moreover, these winners generally enjoy support among different classes of voters, so they are not merely lowest common denominators, as some analysts had feared. In at least one instance, approval voting would have led to a different winner from plurality voting (in which voters can vote for exactly one candidate); arguably, this winner would have been the better social choice because he had wider support than his closest opponent. On another occasion, approval voting led to ideological voting—in which the voting patterns reflected an underlying ordering of the candidates—but voting in most societies tends to be nonideological. Overall, the recent experimentation with approval voting has shown that it not only may make a difference but also elects broadly acceptable candidates.     

Import Diversion under European Antidumping Policy

This paper studies empirically the effects of European antidumping cases on trade diversion from importers named in an antidumping investigation, to countries not named in the investigation. For this purpose we use a unique data set at the 8-digit product level. The amount of import diversion can be regarded as an indication of the effectiveness of antidumping policy. We find that trade diversion in the European Union caused by antidumping actions—in contrast to the United States—is limited, suggesting that the European Union's antidumping policy is more effective in keeping imports out. This result holds even after controlling for selection bias in the antidumping investigation procedure. A number of explanations for this difference in trade diversion as a result of antidumping policy between the European Union and United States are formulated.     

Egoistic and ethical orientations of university students toward work-related decisions

An onslaught of ethically questionable actions by top government, business, and religious leaders during the 1980s has brought the issue of ethics in decision making to the forefront of public consciousness. This study examines the ethical orientation of university students in four decision-making situations. The dependent variable — ethical orientation toward work-related decisions — is measured through student responses to questions following four work-related vignettes. Possible responses to each vignette are structured to permit categorization of respondents into two broad orientations: egoistic and ethical. Independent variables are academic major, ethics in business orientation, gender, and religiosity. Generally, students tended to choose an ethical orientation over an egoistic orientation in each vignette. Business majors were generally no less likely to choose an ethical orientation toward work-related decisions than nonbusiness majors. Respondents characterized by moral unity (belief in the consistency between general ethical principles and work-related ethical standards) were more likely to have an ethical orientation toward work-related decisions than those subscribing to the amoral theory of business. Females showed a consistent tendency to be more ethically oriented toward work-related decisions than males. Finally, respondents high on religiosity tended to be more ethically oriented. Jon M. Shepard is Head of the Department of Management at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. His most recent publications include Gender Differences in Proclivity for Unethical Behavior (Journal of Business Ethics). His current research interests include ethics in business, corporate ethical climates, and the accountability of institutions in modern society.Linda Hartenian is a P/HRM doctoral candidate in the Department of Management at the University of Kentucky. Her research interests include the performance appraisal process, the impact of decentralized computing systems on organizational communication, and research methodology.This research was supported by a grant from the Graduate School, University of Kentucky. We wish to thank Richard Wokutch for his thoughtful suggestions for this paper.     

Exit,voice, and collective action in Swedish consumer policy

The development of consumer influence in Sweden is characterized by successive phases of initiation (1940–1953), expansion (1954–1971), consolidation (1972–1977), retrenchment (1978–1984), and decentralization (since 1985). For the study of consumer policy, the concepts of exit and voice, collective action, countervailing power, and integrated participation are used.It is shown that consumer policy neither belongs exclusively to the public domain, nor is simply left to the whims of the market. Its success depends in part on the participation of non-governmental organizations. However, the state's presence is essential for the survival of organized consumer interests as a countervailing power.

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Abwanderung, Widerspruch und kollektives Handeln in der schwedischen Verbraucherpolitik

Zusammenfassung Der Beitrag kennzeichnet die Entwicklung des Verbrauchereinflusses in Schweden durch mehrere Phasen. Danach liegt die Anfangsphase in den Jahren 1940 bis 1953; in die anschließenden Jahre bis 1971 fällt die Phase der Expansion; die Phase der Konsolidierung fällt in die Jahre 1972 bis 1977, die des Abbaues in die anschließenden Jahre bis 1984, und die Zeit seit 1985 wird als Dezentralisationsphase bezeichnet.Bei der Analyse der schwedischen Verbraucherpolitik werden die theoretischen Konzepte (a) von Abwanderung und Widerspruch, (b) des kollektiven Handelns, (c) der Gegenmachtbildung und (d) der integrierten Mitwirkung verwendet.Es wird gezeigt, daß die Verbraucherpolitik weder ausschließlich dem öffentlichen Bereich zugehört, noch den Launen des Marktes unterliegen kann. Ihr Erfolg setzt zumindest teilweise die Mitwirkung von nichtstaatlichen Organisationen voraus. Allerdings ist staatliche Unterstützung notwendig für das Überleben des organisierten Verbraucherinteresses als Gegenmacht.

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List of acronyms used in this article ARN Allmänna reklamationsnämnden — the Public Merchandise Complaints Board - HFI Hemmens forskningsinstitut — the Institute of Home Research - HSB Hyresgästernas Sparkasse- och Byggnadsföreningars Riksförbund — the National Association of Tenants' Savings and Building Societies - ICA Inköpscentralernas Aktiebolag - KI Konsumentinstitutet — the Institute for Consumer Information - KF Kooperativa Förbundet — the Cooperative Union and Wholesale Society - KoV Konsumentverket — the National Board for Consumer Policies - KPK Konsumentpolitiska kommittén — the Committee on Consumer Policy - KR Konsumentrådet — the National Council for Consumer Goods Research and Consumer Information - LO Landsorganisationen i Sverige — the Swedish Trade Union Confederation - LRF Lantbrukarnas riksförbund — the Federation of Swedish Farmers - MD Marknadsdomstolen — the Market Court - M SEK Million Swedish crowns - NO Näringsfrihetsombudsmannen — the Competition Ombudsman - NR Näringsfrihetsrådet — the Competition Council - OECD The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development - OK Oljekonsumenternas Förbund — the Swedish Oil Consumers' Union - PRO Pensionärernas Riksorganisation — the Swedish Pensioners' National Organization - SACO/SR Centralorganisationen — the Swedish Confederation of Professional Associations, SACO/SR - SAF Svenska arbetsgivareföreningen — the Swedish Employers' Confederation - SEK Swedish crowns - SHIO Sveriges Hantverks- och Industriorganisation — the Swedish Federation of Crafts and Small and Medium-Sized Industries - SI Sveriges Industriförbund — the Federation of Swedish Industries - SJN Statens jordbruksnämnd — the National Agricultural Marketing Board - SLV Statens livsmedelsverk — the National Food Administration - SPK Statens pris- och kartellnämnd — the National Price and Cartel Office - TCO Tjänstemännens Centralorganisation — the Central Organization of Salaried Employees - VDN Varudeklarationsnämnden — the Institute for Informative Labelling Victor A. Pestoff is a Research Associate in the Department of Business Administration, University of Stockholm, S-106 91 Stockholm, Sweden.An earlier version of this paper was presented at the International Conference on the Nonprofit Sector and the Welfare State — Development of a Research Agenda, Bad Honnef FRG, June 10–12, 1987, and at the 14th Nordic Sociology Congress, Tampere, FinIand, August 21–23, 1987.     

Merger Control in the New Economy

This paper addresses the potential for conflict between antitrust authorities in the arena of merger control in the new economy. By new economy we mean two related developments. First, the internationalization of the economy, i.e. the ability to sell and produce products world-wide, and secondly, markets with certain characteristics such as network effects and other aspects of natural monopoly. We focus on three types of substantive issues in merger control – market definition, assessment of competitive effects, and the role of remedies. We argue that the scope for conflict varies significantly across these three arenas. In particular, conflict over market definition is less likely. By contrast, the assessment of competitive effects and the role of remedies are areas where conflict between antitrust authorities may be more likely in new economy-type markets.     

Public relations,professionalism, and the public interest

The public interest statement contained in the PRSA Code of Professional Standards is unduly vague and provides neither a working definition of public interest nor any guidance for the performance of what most professions consider to be a primary value. This paper addresses the question of what might constitute public relations service in the public interest, and calls for more stringent guidelines to be developed whereby the profession may advance its service goals more clearly.Thomas H. Bivins, is an Associate Professor in the School of Journalism at the University of Oregon where he teaches public relations and mass media ethics. He received his Ph.D. in 1982 in telecommunication and taught for three years at the University of Delaware before returning to the U of O. Bivins received a B.A. in English and an M.F.A. in creative writing and has nearly twenty years of professional media experience, including work in radio, television, advertising, public relations and editorial cartooning.