The Third-Person Effect in Advertising: A Meta-Analysis

Prior meta-analyses have found evidence for differences in the third-person effect across message types, indicating that the third-person effect is a communication context-specific phenomenon. These meta-analyses do not explain why effects of the perceptual hypothesis in advertising are smaller when compared to communication in general; they do not address the broad range of consumer behavior variables that are affected by third-person perceptions; and they have not investigated whether the perceived effects on the self or on others are better predictors for behavioral responses than third-person perceptions in advertising. This meta-analysis addresses these issues and investigates the perceptual and behavioral hypotheses of the third-person effect in an advertising context. Findings indicate that third-person perceptions in product advertising are weaker when compared to other communication messages due to developments over time and the mixed gratifications provided by product advertising messages. Third-person perceptions in advertising can increase or decrease consumer behavior depending on whether the behavior is self related (e.g., body-related responses) or other related (e.g., support for regulation). Furthermore, perceived effects on self or on others are better behavioral predictors than third-person perceptions, providing managerial implications for advertising campaign pretesting.     

All-Out for Victory! Magazine Advertising and the World War II Home Front

Three main factors determine the effect of advertising campaigns: message content strategy, advertising expenditure and previous consumer behaviour. This study investigates the relative strength of each of these influences. Four possible campaign targets are taken into account: campaign recall, campaign likeability, brand recall and intention to purchase the advertised brand. A study of 40 advertising campaigns, evaluated on average by 1200 consumers, shows that, after controlling for the effect of previous purchase behaviour, the effect of message content strategy is generally larger than the effect of advertising expenditure. Nevertheless, more media expenditure positively influences campaign recall and influences brand recall and purchase intention of small brands. The most effective message content strategy differs per campaign target, but overall awareness and likeability strategies are most effective. For purchase intention only, the emotions strategy can be advised. The information strategy is best avoided.     

Incorporating “Health” into Promotional Messages for Apples

Abstract

To gain further insight into consumer purchase motivation for fruits and vegetables, a hierarchical value map pertaining to dessert apples was derived. This suggested that purchase motivation was driven primarily by health considerations. Information from the hierarchical value map was used to develop three print advertising strategies for a new (hypothetical) apple variety in accord with the MECCAS framework (Means-End Conceptualization of the Components of Advertising Strategy). The way consumers perceived the information communicated in the different strategies was explored using in-depth interviews. Consumers' attitudinal responses to the three strategies were also monitored. The outcome of these explorations suggested that advertising communicating means-end chain information of differential content and structure resulted in different brand attitudes.     

The Anti-smoking Advertising Campaign in Hong Kong: Communication and Attitudinal Perspectives

The CAPP model (Maloney, 1966; Aaker & Myers, 1987) was used to evaluate the anti-smoking advertising campaign in Hong Kong. The findings indicated that the campaign has different communication effects on smokers and non-smokers. Though more smokers can comprehend the message correctly, a smaller number of them have formed a negative attitude towards smoking as compared to non-smokers. Based on the attitudinal differences of the two groups, implications with respect to advertising appeals can be drawn. This study also suggests that the government's campaign should seek to establish a negative attitude towards smoking by smokers.     

Antecedents and Consequences of Social Issue Advertising Believability

ABSTRACT

Television advertising of social issues has become an important element of social marketing. However, little assessment of social advertising believability has been undertaken. This is further compounded by a lack of attention to the antecedents and consequences of how believable the target audience see the advertised message. This study focused on examining social advertising by gathering data on two social issues being advertised. The results indicate that involvement and attention paid to social advertising influenced social advertisement believability, and believability and involvement influenced attitudes toward social issues. Also, attitudes and believability influenced intention to comply with the social issue message.     

Mediated communication of ‘sustainable consumption’ in the alternative media: a case study exploring a message framing strategy

In view of previous effects of mediated communication on public knowledge, perceptions and concern about sustainability problems, this case study explores a message framing strategy for improving the effectiveness of mediated communication of the somewhat neglected topic of sustainable consumption. It describes how an information campaign on sustainable consumption was strategically framed, employing theories on effective and persuasive communication, and implemented through a community news medium in Christchurch, New Zealand. The resultant impacts of the campaign (significant increases in understanding of sustainable consumption and in the number of parents expressing concern over advertising effects on their children's material desires) were indicative of the potentials of employing strategic message framing for improving mediated communication about sustainability. The study also illustrates the potentials for engaging alternative media in such communication. This paper argues that further steps to develop message framing strategies for mediated communication of sustainable consumption is necessary, as this appears to be a largely neglected area in communication and consumer studies, and concludes with an overview of aspects that may be considered in future communication and other initiatives promoting sustainable consumption as a means for achieving sustainability.     

Market Research and Advertising Strategy in Portuguese Agencies: Perspectives of Professionals

SUMMARY

The advertising campaign development process is frequently described in manuals and textbooks. Nevertheless, the empirical perspective gives us a better understanding of the real world. In this study, we tried to understand, to systematize, and to describe the process of research and strategy in advertising agencies. To accomplish this objective we conducted 25 in-depth interviews with advertising agency professionals in Portugal. Cross-analysis of the statements allowed us to identify 5 themes: research done by the client before providing the brief to the agency, client's brief, information gathering done by the agency, brief's discussion inside the agency, and creative brief.     

The Effects of Current Market Forces on the Impact of a TV Commercial in Creating Persuasion

Abstract

The present study investigates the extent to which extenuating factors (excluding those produced by the commercial) affect the extent to which an advertisement is both persuasive and eventually engenders persuasion. The authors collected data from over 5,000 television commercials in the United States, and identified the existing market structure (e.g., brand share, number of competing brands, brand loyalty) surrounding each item at the time the product was advertised, in an effort to separate the effects of the advertisement from the effects of pre-existing market forces on persuasiveness. The results demonstrate that the combined pre-existing market forces have a greater impact on a commercial's ability to persuade than does the message or creativity in the advertisement itself. However, when pre-existing market forces between two products were similar, a creative advertising campaign was still identified as important in producing persuasion. Marketing strategy implications are discussed.     

Managerial Judgement in Model Development

Abstract

The following paper discusses the development of a media planning model that utilized econometric methods, academic theory and managerial judgement. Stautamoyer and Lindquist (1994) called for the inclusion of advertising “experts” in the model development process at earlier stages to facilitate model acceptance. Other authors (Stewart and Furse, 1984; Chakravarti, Mitchell and Staelin, 1981; Kover, 1995) have also discussed the lack of relevance of advertising models that have hurt acceptance. The paper outlines the role played by advertising managers and findings on the applicability of academic theory and research in developing a functional media model.     

How brand-cause fit shapes real world advertising messages: a qualitative exploration of ‘femvertising’

Abstract

Brand-cause fit, the concept that a brand and a social issue ‘pair’ together conceptually, has been a topic of great interest yet it is not fully understood due to inconsistent findings and limited theoretical development. In this study, we take a different approach to understanding brand-cause fit to explore how and in what ways ‘fit’ shapes advertising message strategies. A growing trend in advertising is ‘brand responsibility’, wherein a brand aligns itself with a social issue. A prominent focus of these messages is gender equality, namely, female empowerment. Advertisers utilize ‘femvertisements’ to emphasize their support of women. The motive behind this work is often called into question, given brands’ inherent desire to sell products. Advertisers should consider how brands ‘fit’ with specific social issues. Through a qualitative analysis of advertisements that received an award for femvertising, this study sheds light on the differences in message themes between brands with high versus low brand-cause fit, specifically target audience brand-cause fit, in an effort to further this literature and advertising practice. Five key messaging themes are elucidated among high-fit brands (overt femininity, fixing the self, being a girl is a hardship, actors on set, and let’s talk about it) and four themes among low-fit brands (low femininity, breaking stereotypes, reminders that women and men do the same activities, and getting men on board); which shape how women are depicted, the overall brand message, and the overall social issue message. Indeed, fit should be considered beyond simple high/low congruence. Implications for advertising practitioners and researchers are discussed.     

Economic Crisis and its Impact on Promotion and Media in Cyprus

ABSTRACT

The economic crisis has redounded sharply upon marketing communications and media vehicles in Cyprus. In recession periods, communication and marketing budgets can contract while companies seek to obtain the best communication outcomes with more limited resources, both the size and the distribution of the communication mix can alter rapidly. This qualitative paper reveals that Cypriot advertising agencies now place greater emphasis upon marketing public relations (MPR) as it is perceived to be cost effective and efficient in achieving campaign objectives. The empirical data also indicates a shift towards the use of internet marketing and social media as more and more businesses are realizing the importance of consumer generated marketing and word-of-mouth/mouse marketing (WOMm).     

Current Trends and Future Challenges in the South African Advertising Industry—An Introductory Review

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this article is to provide an introductory review of the structure of the South African Advertising Industry, to identify and discuss the main issues and future challenges in the South African Advertising Industry, and to recommend applicable managerial strategies to the main role players.

The South African society has been involved in a process of transformation, a search for identification, and a conscious effort towards non-discriminatory practices, direct or indirect, for the past eight years. This is apparent in current marketing and advertising practices, which remain firmly focussed on the new breeds of consumers-including the growing young black market. This new challenge to marketers includes a paradigm shift from established practices to an embracing of new research methods, which could address the complexities of reaching, communicating, and meeting the demands of a multicultural consumer society in South Africa. The marketing challenge also indicates the necessity of redefining the largest audience groups in categories that reinterpret race from a South African perspective.

A review of the literature was undertaken, followed by discussions with knowledgeable industry spokesmen. The survey of racial issues in South Africa forms part of an on-going project, as it is envisaged that the shape of the industry will change dramatically during the next decade.

Key managerial implications focus on perspectives and attitudes towards changing employment and empowerment ratios, that would require innovative interpretative studies to contribute towards an understanding of the current challenges. This includes the elimination of stereotypes and linguistic ethnocentrism, black empowerment, training in multicultural advertising communication, and the aligning of conflicting cultures with corporate vision.     

Employee attitudes toward advertising

The attitudes and opinions of a group of bank employees toward a recent advertising campaign run by the bank which stressed employee service were studied via factor analysis. The analysis revealed three clearly defined dimensions underlying the attitude-opinion items: general attitude toward the campaign, relevance of the campaign to the respondent's job, and changes in the respondent's job behavior caused by the campaign. Relationships among factor scores on these three dimensions with job satisfaction, job involvement, degree of customer contact, and degree of contact with other employees were investigated using multiple regressions and canonical correlation analysis. Employee attitudes toward the campaign were significantly related to all four of the job characteristic variables, as was perceived relevance of the campaign to the employee's job. Changes in job behavior were related only to involvement and satisfaction. The relationships found here suggest that in some cases, employee attitudes should be considered in evaluating the effects of advertising campaigns. Close coordination between marketing and general managerial functions is required in situations where advertisements relate to employees as well as customers.     

Assertive Environmental Advertising and Reactance: Differences Between South Koreans and Americans

In three studies, the authors show that Americans and South Koreans react differently to environmental advertising campaigns featuring assertive messages that threaten autonomous freedoms. The findings uphold their hypothesis that cultural differences determine whether consumers will show reactance to assertive advertising campaigns. Study 1 demonstrates that Americans are less receptive to an assertive recycling message using imperatives such as should, must, and ought and more receptive to a nonassertive message using could, might, and worth. South Koreans do not show the reactance response. Study 2, an energy-saving campaign, conceptually replicates the findings and further shows that perceived threat to freedom mediates the effects. Study 3 uses a realistic setting (i.e., online magazine) to further support the hypothesis that cultural differences affect attitudes toward assertive messages, but adds perceived politeness as an underlying second mediator.     

The Federal Trade Commission Redefinition of Deception and Public Policy Implications: Let the Buyer Beware

The current movement toward market deregulation in the United States is perhaps no better illustrated than by the proposals put forth by the Chairman of the Federal Trade Commission (FTC), James C. Miller, III. His far reaching suggestions would alter considerably the approach taken by the FTC toward the regulation of advertising. This paper reviews the current standards of deception in advertising regulation and compares them with Miller's proposals for new standards. Two recent cases settled under the current guidelines are presented. The probable outcome of these cases under the proposed guidelines is examined by employing a framework proposed by Miller and Hutt for analyzing the effects of regulatory policy. Based on that examination, the authors conclude that the current standards have allowed federal and state agencies to bring about elimination of false advertising claims that would not be possible to prove under the proposed guidelines. While the proposed changes may bring certain benefits to government, business, and consumers, their most significant effect could be to reintroduce the rule of caveat emptor.     

Political Issue Promotion in the Age of 9–11

SUMMARY

This study presents an exploratory investigation of the effect of political frames applied in advertising communication on audience evaluations of source credibility. Framing is the filtering of reality by any message that leads the audience to a certain conclusion of what and how to think about an issue. However, this process is not automatic since variables like communication source and the credibility attributed to that source can influence the communicator's ability to transfer the salience of issue frames to the audience. The results of this study show that societal issues, such as terrorism, might be more productively sponsored by governmental offices or not-for-profits than by for-profit organizations.     

Some Thoughts on Multinational Agencies

Abstract

This study tested a model relating humor perceived after repeated exposures to a commercial message to measures of advertising effectiveness. These effectiveness variables are recall of the brand name and advertising copy, attitude toward the advertised brand, stated purchase probability and actual brand choice. The findings indicated that adding humor to a conventional hierarchy-of-effects model does not improve the model's overall explanatory power. However, humor was found to be negatively related to recall and was positively related to brand attitude; both relationships were predicted based on literature in this area.     

Psychological ownership: a social marketing advertising message appeal?

The authors assessed psychological ownership as a potential persuasive advertising message appeal in social marketing efforts. Psychological ownership is a feeling of possession; it occurs when individuals feel that something is theirs even though they cannot hold legal title to it. Interestingly, the first study indicated advertising messages that generate psychological ownership yielded less favourable attitudes, word of mouth and willingness to pay price premiums among women. Women responded more negatively to messages that attempted to induce psychological ownership than to neutral messages. The adverse responses of women prompted the second study, in which both the psychological ownership message and cognitive capacity were manipulated. Results indicate that, in a limited cognitive capacity condition, women responded similarly towards higher psychological ownership and neutral advertising messages. Further, these effects were mediated by inferences of manipulative intent and not feelings of guilt. Theoretical and managerial implications are offered for marketers attempting to use psychological ownership as an advertising message strategy and gender as a segmentation strategy.     

European Views of Advertising

Abstract

The effects of brand beliefs and attitude-toward-the-ad (A_ad) on immediate and delayed measures of attitude-toward-the-brand (A_b)were investigated for individuals who were more- and less-involved with the message of a print advertisement. Results suggest A_ad's and brand beliefs' influence on immediate and delayed measures of A_b depend on individuals' involvement with the message. As expected, for individuals who are more-involved with an advertising message, both beliefs and A_ad influenced A_b. This relationship held even after a one-week delay. For those less-involved with the advertising message, however, beliefs had no significant influence on brand attitudes, measured immediately following advertising exposure or after a one-week delay. A_ad was shown to have a significant influence on brand attitudes in both time conditions. Implications for theory and practice, as well as directions for future research, are discussed.     

Cause-Related Marketing: An Exploratory Study of Campaign Donation Structures Issues

ABSTRACT

Over the past decade, cause-related marketing (CRM) has become a popular and unique promotional tool for brands. Academic research indicates outcomes of such campaigns are generally positive for all stakeholders. Consumers feel they are making a difference, firms benefit from improved public image and increased sales, and the cause or nonprofit organization receives increased publicity and funding. However, there are ethical issues involved when linking a firm with a nonprofit organization as well as potential negatives (Smith and Stodghill 1994; Andreasan 1996; Meyer 1999; Polonsky and Wood 2001). An exploratory research study was undertaken to understand the impact of the structural elements of cause-related marketing campaigns, including how the donation is quantified, the size of the donation relative to the price of the product, the presence of donation deadlines and caps, and the level of promotion used to publicize the campaign. Findings suggest that the structural elements of cause-related marketing campaigns do influence consumers' perceptions of the campaigns. Based on these results, implications for CRM campaign managers and future research ideas are provided. This information will help practitioners, including marketing managers, advertising managers and advertising creative professionals to design the most effective communication tactics for a cause-related marketing campaign.