An Objective and Task Media Selection Decision Model and Advertising Cost Formula to Determine International Advertising Budgets

Abstract

A company needs to estimate the cost of media plans and advertising upon introducing a new or existing product into an unfamiliar environment such as a new international market. This article presents a conceptual framework for making media decisions and a method for estimating the cost of advertising in international markets. The objective and task method is used to build a working model in order to articulate the necessary steps leading to informed media decisions for budgeting an international advertising campaign. Methods of estimating product demand and a flow model for media selection are also presented.     

Ethnic Identity in Advertising: A Review and Meta-Analysis

The corpus of research on ethnic identity in advertising indicates that (1) ethnic identity influences commonly examined attitudinal and purchase-intention outcomes, and (2) attitudes toward both the actor(s)/model(s) and the ad moderate attitudes toward brands depicted in ethnically resonant ads. Individual studies often differ by measurement type (i.e., single-item measure versus multi-item scale), study design (i.e., experiment versus survey), and diversity of respondent sample. Seemingly, ethnic-identity effects are greater for studies that relied on single-item measures, experimental designs, and more diverse samples. Implications and future research directions are suggested.     

Online Behavioral Advertising: A Literature Review and Research Agenda

Advertisers are increasingly monitoring people's online behavior and using the information collected to show people individually targeted advertisements. This phenomenon is called online behavioral advertising (OBA). Although advertisers can benefit from OBA, the practice also raises concerns about privacy. Therefore, OBA has received much attention from advertisers, consumers, policymakers, and scholars. Despite this attention, there is neither a strong definition of OBA nor a clear accumulation of empirical findings. This article defines OBA and provides an overview of the empirical findings by developing a framework that identifies and integrates all factors that can explain consumer responses toward OBA. The framework suggests that the outcomes of OBA are dependent on advertiser-controlled factors (e.g., the level of personalization) and consumer-controlled factors (e.g., knowledge and perceptions about OBA and individual characteristics). The article also overviews the theoretical positioning of OBA by placing the theories that are used to explain consumers’ responses to OBA in our framework. Finally, we develop a research agenda and discuss implications for policymakers and advertisers.     

Political Advertising and the Broadcast Media

Politicians, broadcasters and advertising practitioners have shown concern over problems associated with political advertising. These problems include allocated time to political advertising in the broadcast media, content of political advertising and cost of political advertising through the broadcast media. Previous discussion of these problems has focused on one or two problem areas with limited discussion of proposed solutions. This article integrates positions on these problem areas and provides an overivew of proposed solutions.     

The Media and Their Advertisers: Exploring Ethical Dilemmas in Product Coverage Decisions

Marketers are increasingly relying on promotional practices (variously labeled as stealth marketing, hybrid messages, covert advertising) based on the diffusion of product information by third parties that appear to be independent of advertisers. In this paper, we examine to what extent the media treat their advertisers favorably, providing these advertisers’ products extra visibility in supposedly neutral editorial content. Empirically, we model the determinant of media coverage of Italian fashion products in an extended dataset of consumer magazines in Italy, France, Germany, UK, and the USA. Research findings show that advertising is an important determinant of product placements in editorial content, and this result is consistent across countries and publishers. Our results imply that resource-rich advertisers engaging in compensatory advertising (that is, advertising investments that compensate poor product quality) might bias media coverage in their favor. Consumers will consequently be exposed twice to favorable messages about those products, in both advertisements and media content, resulting in higher purchases and reduced consumer welfare.     

Hours of Work and Advertising: An International Comparison

A cross-sectional analysis over 24 different countries tests the hypothesis that advertising increases aggregate demand. The method adopted regressed hours worked on advertising and on other relevant independent variables. The notion that advertising increases people's acquisitive instincts and hence desire to work at wage rates lower than would otherwise hold received scant support.     

全面评价媒体的广告效果——媒体广告效果=收视×影响力指数

本研究借鉴国内外传媒研究者关于媒体质化研究的既有成果,集聚四家研究和调查机构及多名专家的智慧和经验,首次提出电视媒体影响力指数的概念和指标体系,并选取中央电视台、省级电视台、城市电视台三个层次共323个频道和60个全国收视率最高的代表性栏目,在全国35个中心城市对10500个样本进行了大规模的入户调查。分析结果表明,中央电视台是最具影响力的电视媒体,省级卫视影响力出现明显分化;电视栏目影响力上,中央电视台在新闻财经类栏目上优势明显,省级卫视在综艺影视剧类节目表现上与央视的差距正在缩小。本文还就收视率与影响力之间的相关性做了分析,并对这些研究结果的实际运用提出了策略性建议。     

Advertising Media Planning in Spain: Models and Current Usages

Advertising media planning has attracted considerable attention from researchers and practitioners. There is a clear dichotomy between the optimizing and the nonoptimizing approaches. We have reviewed the present state of the art of the mathematical media models. The purpose of this study was to examine the available models for media planning in Spain and to assess their usage. A postal survey was conducted among Spanish advertising agencies whose advertising expenditure in million pesetas was 521,000 in 1988.     

Engagement with Social Media and Social Media Advertising: The Differentiating Role of Platform Type

This study examines how consumers’ engagement with social media platforms drives engagement with advertising embedded in these platforms and, subsequently, evaluations of this advertising. Our survey (N = 1,346, aged 13 and older) maps social media users’ engagement experiences with Facebook, YouTube, LinkedIn, Twitter, Google+, Instagram, Pinterest, and Snapchat and their experiences with and evaluations of advertising on these platforms. Our findings show that engagement is highly context specific; it comprises various types of experiences on each social media platform such that each is experienced in a unique way. Moreover, on each platform, a different set of experiences is related to advertising evaluations. It is further shown that engagement with social media advertising itself is key in explaining how social media engagement is related to advertising evaluations. The general conclusion is that there is no such thing as “social media.”     

Living in Media and the Future of Advertising

The future role of advertising and its professionals in society is considered using media theory and the production perspective on advertising as work. Given advertising's reliance on media to tell its stories, and people's everyday lives playing out within those same media, the moment these worlds collide provides an excellent starting point for futuristic exploration. Using a taxonomy of media as artifacts, activities, and social arrangements, advertising is considered in terms of an aesthetic opportunity, an ethical call to action, and a social responsibility.     

Awareness Advertising and International Market Segmentation

In recent years, multinational corporations have increasingly employed advertising in markets where their products are not available. Such ‘awareness advertising’ is only in small part for products that are likely to be introduced in those markets in the near future. A significant and larger part of awareness advertising is for products that are unlikely to be sold in the particular market because of government restrictions on commercial importation and sale. In this paper, we will analyse the motivation behind the use of awareness advertising, the benefits that multinational firms may receive from such advertising and its implications for international market segmentation. The paper concludes with a discussion of areas for fruitful future research on awareness advertising.     

Perspectives on Advertising From the Geographical Literature: A Critical Review

In recent years, geographers have been devoting increasing attention to the field of advertising, and in particular to advertising imagery. The authors of this article offer a critical review of articles with substantial advertising content that have appeared in geography journals, and assess their relevance to advertising practitioners, scholars and students. These writings are reviewed under three headings: considerations of place and space; issues related to gender and race, and aspects of international advertising. Although many geographers are critical of advertising, there is nevertheless much in their work to interest an advertising readership.     

Advertising for New and Existing Brands: The Impact of Media Context and Type of Advertisement

The effects of advertisement and context type on the responses to advertisements for different brands of new and existing products were tested. In the first experiment (243 graduate students) a positive emotional advertisement and a non‐emotional advertisement for a well‐known and a new brand of printer were tested in a positive emotional context and a non‐emotional media context. In the second experiment (206 graduate students) positive emotional and non‐emotional advertisements for new brands of watches and healthy drinks were tested in an emotional and a non‐emotional context. The type of context moderated the responses to advertisements for the well‐known and new products: a positive emotional context led to a more positive attitude towards the advertisement and the brand and purchase intention for the well‐known brand than for the new brand. A non‐emotional context led to more positive responses for the new brand than for the well‐known brand. In general, emotional advertisements led to more positive affective reactions and non‐emotional advertisements led to more positive cognitive reactions. However, the type of advertisement did not have a moderating effect on the responses to advertising for the new or well‐known brands or different product types. The studies illustrated the relevance of media context for advertising new versus existing products.     

Developing a Group Decision Support System for Advertising Media Evaluation: A Case in the Middle East

The importance of advertising media evaluation as a multifaceted problem is well known by both academics and practitioners. Although previous studies tried to optimize media evaluation, there still are some gaps and problems to address, particularly in areas of flexibility of models/frameworks, decision making quality, tension management, and agility of the evaluation process. Most of previous studies are based on inflexible models/frameworks that have limitations on number of criteria/alternatives they can consider and type of data they can process. A great volume of the work used arbitrary decision making; arbitrary decision making regarding criteria and media importance may reduce effectiveness of advertising campaigns. Furthermore, the academic literature offers little guidance on group decision aggregation, and tension management during decision making is neglected. Media evaluation is a time taking process and any acceleration will reduce pre-campaign costs. The main aim of this paper is to illustrate how a group decision support system (GDSS) can assist media planners to overcome mentioned problems more systematically. For this purpose, we developed a GDSS that is an integration of three well-known multi-criteria decision making techniques. With a real world case study, we illustrate the performance of the proposed GDSS. Results of our quantitative assessments indicate that the GDSS is flexible, allows decision makers to express their opinions, reduces tension among decision makers, and saves time.     

Advertising Decision Makers' and Consumers' Perceptions of Media Substitutability

The purpose of this article is to assess the perceptions of advertising media substitutability among consumers, media planners, and media providers. Data were collected from three different samples using structured questionnaires and CATI interviewing. The results suggest that some degree of substitution does indeed exist in all three groups. This means that if first media choices are unavailable all groups are likely to consider others as possibly providing the best buying information. This study adds to the scarce literature that focuses on perceptions of media substitutability and provides results for both demand and supply side of the media market. It also suggests that such perceptual studies may be helpful in a re-examination of current policy and advertising management decisions.     

Print Advertising Strategies of International Firms

Advertising sponsored by non-US corporations has increased dramatically in the United States since the 1960s. This paper employs a content analysis approach to examine the amount, format and type of advertising being incorporated by non-US companies. All non-US advertisements were examined in Newsweek magazine for the years 1965 to 1982. Several advertising issues are examined, emphasizing differences by country and year.     

A Review of the Structure and Participants in Cameroon's Advertising Market

This article reviews the structure of Cameroon's advertising market. After discussing changes in the market since 1985, the authors describe its current structure. A comprehensive approach leads them to consider the market as a system based on interaction between institutions or organizations involved directly or indirectly in the advertising process. The authors conclude that, overall, Cameroon's advertising market is weakly structured and dominated by a small number of large advertisers. They feel that the advertising agency system, especially in terms of the services it offers, is poorly adapted to Cameroon's small and medium-sized advertisers. They therefore propose a system of small and medium-sized agencies that would play a specific role geared to the limited needs of these advertisers.