Municipal annexation: Does state policy matter?

Annexation, the process of bringing land from one jurisdiction to another is the means by which municipalities physically expand in the United States. The process of annexation is implemented through procedures at the local level and authorized by general state enabling legislation. State annexation policy varies widely across the United States, but it has the potential to play a significant role in facilitating or constraining local annexation activity. This paper details the effects of specific provisions of state annexation law on municipal annexation activity. A sample of over 900 cities containing at least 10,000 people that annexed during the 1990–1999 decade was used to explore the effects. Eleven different provisions of state law were included in the analysis, including whether the state has a boundary agency overseeing annexation and whether an election is required to complete the annexation process. Results show that nearly all state provisions affect the frequency of municipal annexation, although some had unexpected results. State provisions also affect rates of annexation and acre growth through annexation, but not as consistently as they affect frequencies. The paper concludes with a discussion of the efficacy of state policy to influence local annexation activity.     

Brexit: How Will UK Agriculture Fare?

There is little doubt that Brexit would have significant implications for UK agriculture, a sector with strong trade links to the EU and strong reliance on CAP income support. This article reports preliminary results from employing a Computable General Equilibrium Model, a Partial Equilibrium Model and Farm Level Models to explore selected trade and domestic policy scenarios post‐Brexit. These allow for the estimation of changes in producer prices, production and farm incomes against a baseline scenario of continued EU membership. Under a Free Trade Agreement with the EU, agricultural impacts are relatively modest. By contrast, unilateral removal of import tariffs has significant negative impacts on prices, production and incomes. Adoption of the EU's WTO tariff schedule for all imports favours net importers (e.g. dairy) and harms net exporters (e.g. sheep). Given the strong dependence of most UK farms on direct payments, their removal worsens negative impacts of new trade arrangements and offsets positive impacts. Impacts vary across different types and sizes of farm, but also regionally. However, the period of adjustment to new trade and domestic policy conditions may prove very challenging for a large number of farm businesses.     

Dynamics in national agri-environmental policy implementation under changing EU policy priorities: Does one size fit all?

Over the past 30 years, Agri-Environmental Policies (AEP) in the EU have developed with relative national autonomy and according to the subsidiarity principle. The environmental directives represent an increase in EU-level environmental ambitions and challenge the current implementation of EU AEP by creating an increasingly demanding set of regulations with which each member state must comply. National AEP implementation may, however, maintain original characteristics and fail to adopt or transform as EU policy implementation proceeds or when EU policies develop. This creates a potential gap between EU policies and national policy implementation resulting in the ensuing national policy dynamics and adaptations becoming issues of interest. This raises a central question regarding the extent to which national AEP implementation can help us predict whether AEP will be suitable to achieve environmental directive objectives nationally in the future. In this paper, we first investigate the dynamics in the implementation of national Agri-Environmental Schemes (AES) through changes in (i) AES policy objectives over time, (ii) administrative implementation structures, and (iii) administrative policy decision structures in the Netherlands, Denmark, Greece, Austria and Romania. Second, we examine the extent to which various factors have influenced the development of national policies over time. The study identifies development based on the theory of ‘process of institutional change’, i.e. we qualitatively estimate the costs of change based on proposed factors including economic conditions in relation to AES implementation, political institutional capacity, policy legacy, policy preferences, and current discourse. On this background, we identify differences in implementation strategies or outcomes in terms of inertia, absorption and transformation, which are characteristic of the national responses to changing AEP at the EU level. We discuss AES dynamics; whether policy content or structures should be in focus for future policy design and the implications of these findings for the future role of AEP in fulfilling environmental directives and argue why a one size fits all rule does not adequately cover current AES development.     

The iLUC dilemma: How to deal with indirect land use changes when governing energy crops?

Due to land use effects, bioenergy use may cause adverse effects on biodiversity, soil and water and may even fail to guarantee a GHG emissions reduction compared to fossil fuel use. Accounting methodologies and policy instruments were elaborated to prevent these effects, but there is still no sound and consensual methodology to take into account indirect land use change that substantially contributes to GHG emissions as well as a loss of biodiversity. While the iLUC hypothesis, that is the potentiality of adverse effects arising from indirect land use change related to biomass cultivation, is hardly subject to dispute, the quantification of these effects and especially their policy implications are however contentious. Hence, bioenergy policies worldwide face a dilemma: Neglecting iLUC effects that do in fact exist or taking them into account although no sound methodology is available? The article covers the current state of the discussion and also analyses the approaches developed for taking indirect land use change into account. Assessment criteria for coping with the iLUC dilemma are developed and policy recommendations are derived from that.     

How did post-2000 agricultural policy changes in Turkey affect farmers? – A focus group evaluation

The aim of this study is to provide an analysis on how producers have been affected by the decisions made in 2000 in the agricultural sector. Data collected from the focus group discussions was compared to the agricultural policy effects on Antalya Burdur and Isparta provinces. The participants were primarily selected from a list of state institutions and organizations, and included representatives from cooperatives and producer organizations that are engaged in the agricultural sector and/or bring service to rural areas. The discussion revealed that small-scale farmers were unable to use the support provided by the policies; as a consequence, many of them were unable to cultivate their land and had to migrate. In general, the participants stated that significant social and economic changes did occur in rural areas, however they emphasized that these changes were to the detriment of small-scale farmers and instead favored farmers operating on large scale.     

Agriculture and proximity to roads: How should farmers and retailers adapt? Examples from the Ile-de-France region

The present study was carried out in the Ile-de-France region surrounding Paris, which is both the biggest conurbation in France and a large agricultural area. In areas such as these, airborne pollutants from road traffic may adversely affect the quality of the food produced by farms close by. This raises questions about the spatial compatibility of farming and road networks, although there is currently no scientific consensus concerning potential health risks for producers and consumers. Some actors in agricultural supply chains have tried to limit potential risks by producing technical guidelines, including isolation distances between major roads and fields farmed under contract. This paper analyses these “isolation distances”, using approaches from the agricultural and social sciences: surveys on stakeholders in agribusiness and on farmers, and a cartographic simulation submitted to the surveyed farmers for discussion. The results show that isolation distances serve to create market opportunities in a context of market segmentation, or are applied as a precautionary principle. Though not a widespread practice, safety distances could have considerable impacts on farms in terms of both technical management and total farm area, thus calling for further scientific research on this issue.     

How land transfer marketization influence on green total factor productivity from the approach of industrial structure? Evidence from China

Market-oriented allocation of land resources is one of the main economic reforms in China. However, the influence of land transfer marketization (LTM) on green total factor productivity (green TFP) and its mechanisms remain unknown. Based on panel data of 30 provincial administrative regions in China from 2004 to 2016, this study attempts to establish mechanism among LTM, industrial structure and green TFP, which is measured by the Slack Based Measure DEA (SBM-DEA) model containing undesirable output, and empirically estimates the impact of LTM, the rationalization and optimization of industrial structure and their interactions on green TFP further. The results show that: 1) LTM has a significant promoting effect on the improvement of green TFP in China, and the effect is also significant in the eastern, central and western regions as well, indicating that the application of land transfer policy to regulate regional economic development is widespread in China. 2) The rationalization of industrial structure has significantly promoted the development of green TFP in China, as well as at the regional levels, and the effect decreases from the western region to the central and eastern regions. The optimization of industrial structure also has a promoting effect on green TFP in China and all the regions, but the regional differences of the effect are contrary to that of the rationalization of industrial structure, with a decreasing trend from the eastern region to the central and western regions. 3) The interaction between LTM and the rationalization of industrial structure has significantly inhibited the improvement of green TFP in China, and the regional variations of the restraining effect are higher in the western region, followed by the central and eastern regions. The interaction between LTM and the optimization of industrial structure also has a negative effect on green TFP in China, and the regional variations of the effect showing the decreasing trend from the eastern region to the western and central regions. Therefore, China should continue to adhere to the market-oriented urban land transfer system reform, actively play the role of the government in the industrial upgrading and industrial transfer, and formulate a differentiated land transfer system and industrial development policies based on the economic development and industrial characteristics of various regions, so as to achieve the sustainable development of China’s economy and society.     

New environmental policy instruments to realize forest expansion in Flanders (northern Belgium): A base for smart regulation?

This paper evaluates the current instrument mix, designs options for smart regulation and estimates the support base of new instruments for the forest expansion policy in Flanders (northern Belgium). The framework applied is a combination of theories on instrument choice (ICT), policy transfer and legitimacy. The ICT points out that there is a need for new environmental policy instruments (NEPI) oriented to private actors that inform them or create win–win situations for all involved parties. The need is especially high for farmers, who are key actors. The policy transfer analysis suggested instruments currently in use in the Netherlands, England and Denmark that can fulfill these needs. However, the acceptability – or legitimacy – of the suggested instruments in Flanders is only high for three of these, notably the carbon fund, flexible grant scheme and expert advice (especially by forest groups). This largely fills some smart regulation gaps, like the need for information (expert advice), the involvement of other institutional actors (certifiers, forest groups) and the higher involvement of the private sector (all). However, some gaps, such as flexible land purchase through cooperation with real estate agents or other private agents and opportunities for win–win outcomes with farmers, remain. Thus, it is not possible to fully optimize the instrument mix in accordance with the smart regulation requirements in Flanders’ forest expansion policy at this moment. However, as continuity or incremental change is characteristic of most public policy, this does not mean that the suggested changes will be impossible in the near future, especially with the changing character of the rural space.     

PDO Beef Recognition: How Can We Improve It?

There is agreement that product origin affects its quality evaluations. Though existing legislation makes use of this fact, recognition of such terms and symbols is quite low and taking advantage of origin as a differentiation source is often lost. Using a sample of Portuguese consumers and Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) beef, results confirm low level of PDO label recognition. It is not enough to communicate that a PDO label is linked to a particular region, but other aspects should be highlighted, namely, products' experience attributes. Efforts should be made to improve communication to the consumer of what a PDO label exactly stands for.     

Urban green infrastructure in Europe: Is greenspace planning and policy compliant?

Urban green infrastructure (UGI) planning, based on certain principles, has emerged as a way to conceptualise connected greenspace in urbanised environments. This is achieved through the application of processes and approaches linked to policy themes to which the concept can significantly contribute. Taken together the processes, approaches and policy themes constitute the principles of UGI, which when adopted can promote, maintain and enhance quality of life in resource-efficient, compact and climate-resilient cities. In this study we explore the extent to which strategic greenspace planning in Europe is UGI compliant, as we hypothesised that the above principles are presently under-represented in planning documents and policies. This was accomplished by conducting a comparative analysis of the adoption of UGI principles in current practices of greenspace planning across European city-regions based on a systematic review of previous data and reports. The study found that many UGI principles and related concepts are present to some degree in strategic greenspace planning in Europe. However, gaps exist with regard to their scope and level of consideration. Presently, conservation emerges as the predominant task in strategic urban greenspace planning. However, enhancing network connectivity is key to the development of UGI, hence a greater focus on the restoration and creation of greenspace is required in the future. Based on our analysis it can be concluded that the advancement towards UGI planning is well established and progressing, although some areas are markedly under-represented. Strategic greenspace planning in Europe, with a few exceptions, requires further development to be effectively considered as UGI compliant.     

The Dutch urban ground lease: A valuable tool for land policy?

Once heralded by both liberals and socialists as a tool for Dutch municipal governments to prevent land speculation and to implement spatial policies, a century later the Dutch ground lease (erfpacht) is now despised by many. The ground lease was the subject of strong debate in the recent past and is likely to remain so. It has been argued that lessees should have the right to become owner of the land, and this ‘right to buy’ has indeed been implemented in the land policies of several municipalities. The Dutch urban ground lease seems to be under serious pressure. Is it outdated or is it still a valuable tool for land policy? Before we answer this question, we firstly will provide an historical overview of Dutch ground lease. Secondly, the different types of ground lease will be elaborated. Thirdly, the focus will be on the urban ground lease used by Dutch municipalities and the developments in the use of this instrument. Fourthly, the recent policy changes will be dealt with, followed by an assessment.     

Why do we need to integrate farmer decision making and wildlife models for policy evaluation?

Environmental and agricultural policy instruments cause changes in land-use which in turn affect habitat quality and availability for a range of species. These policies often have wildlife or biodiversity goals, but in many cases they are ineffective. The low effectiveness and the emergence of unwanted side effects of environmental and agricultural policies are caused by over-simplistic assumptions in the design of policy instruments as well as difficulties with predicting behaviours of policy subjects. When considering wildlife in agricultural landscapes, policy's performance depends both on human (farmers) actions, which the policies aim to affect, and wildlife responses to land-use and management changes imposed by farmers. Thus, in order to design effective agri-environmental policies, detailed ex-ante assessments of both of these aspects are necessary. Due to the restrictive assumptions and technical limitations, traditional agricultural economic and ecological models fall short in terms of predictions of impacts of agri-environmental measures. The feedback situation between policy, human behaviour and ecological systems behaviour can confound these approaches, which do not take systems complexity into account. Therefore, a solution that integrates both feedback interactions and the differing scales at which these interactions take place is needed. For this, we suggest developing integrated policy assessment tools comprising of simulated farmer decision making, on-farm land-use and wildlife responses in the form of spatially explicit, dynamically connected agent-based models. Although complex and necessitating true inter-disciplinarity, these approaches have matured to the point where this endeavour is now feasible.     

Vacant industrial premises and local development: A survey,analysis and policy assessment of the problem in Stoke‐on‐Trent

Summary

This paper presents the results of some survey work carried out in 1985 and in late 1987 on the subject of vacant industrial premises (VIPs) in the Stoke‐on‐Trent area. The issue of VIPs is briefly discussed at the outset and attention is drawn to the virtual information void that exists as regards the topic. The main core of the paper discusses the results of a survey of VIPs conducted in Stoke‐on‐Trent in 1985 and 1987. A typology of VIPs is suggested and, using a components of change approach, trends in the mid‐1980s are analysed. Detailed consideration is made of individual components ‐ including premises persistently vacant and reoccupations ‐ and several themes are developed. These include questions of the local distribution of VIPs components; the problems of returning premises to use; and the policy issues involved. The survey results reveal that over 3 million ft² of vacant industrial floorspace was available in early 1985 but that the figure had fallen to less than 2 million ft² by late 1987.     

How do obese people afford to be obese? Consumption strategies of Russian households

This article investigates the extent to which Russian households that differ in their members’ weight status adjust their food consumption differently when their economic resources change. Using household‐panel data from the Russia Longitudinal Monitoring Survey (RLMS) from 1995 to 2005, we estimate total expenditure elasticities of food expenditures, food quantities, and food quality for normal‐weight, overweight, and obese households, respectively. The expenditure elasticities of quality derived for obese households for meat, bread, fruits, and dairy were found to be 15–20% higher than those of normal households. Hence, a change in economic resources causes obese households to adjust the quality of purchased foods significantly more flexibly than normal‐weight households. Only few differences were found for quantity and expenditure reactions. Our results emphasize that policies aiming to reduce obesity should consider deviations in consumption behavior of normal and obese consumers in terms of quality.     

Forest management plan as a policy instrument: Carrot, stick or sermon?

Technical aspects of forest management planning as decision-support have been addressed in numerous scientific studies. However, forest management plans (FMPs) also play a significant, but largely neglected, role as forest policy instruments. We have examined the policy context and planning practices in two contrasting case countries, revealing striking differences in policy instrumentation. In Sweden, FMPs mainly serve for informational steering, with under-utilised potential for providing individualised advice. In Lithuania, the plans are primarily regulatory, serving for effective control but with several deficiencies, notably excessive costs and institutionalised corruption. The study demonstrates that policy analyses can be fruitfully grounded in the empirics of planning practices.     

Analysis of rural development policy networks in Greece: Is LEADER really different?

This paper presents an application of quantitative network analysis. It examines rural development projects with respect to their structural and politico-administrative dimensions, including power relations, conflicts, multifunctionality and intersectorality. The network structures and relations of comparable IPRD and LEADER projects are analyzed. The LEADER project network is shown to be less hierarchical than the IPRD project network, although the LEADER network is not characterized by significantly simpler procedures or clearer policy content than the IPRD network. Information and contact are significantly greater, and conflict density is significantly lower in the LEADER network. Administrative intersectorality is higher in the IPRD project, while the multidisciplinarity and the multifunctionality are higher in the LEADER project. However, the LEADER project is not perceived as delivering its objectives to a greater extent than the IPRD project. The implications for process-oriented evaluation are discussed.     

Changing decisions in a changing landscape: How might forest owners in an urbanizing region respond to emerging bioenergy markets?

The global bioenergy market has considerable impacts on local land use patterns, including landscapes in the Southeastern United States where increased demand for bioenergy feedstocks in the form of woody biomass is likely to affect the management and availability of forest resources. Despite extensive research investigating the productivity and impacts of different bioenergy feedstocks, relatively few studies have assessed the preferences of private landowners, who control the majority of forests in the eastern U.S., to harvest biomass for the bioenergy market. To better understand contingent behaviors given emerging biomass markets, we administered a stated preference experiment to private forest owners in the rapidly urbanizing Charlotte Metropolitan region. Respondents indicated their preferences for harvesting woody biomass under a set of hypothetical market-based scenarios with varying forest management plans and levels of economic return. Our analytical framework also incorporated data from a previously-administered revealed preference survey and spatially-explicit remote sensing data, enabling us to analyze how individuals’ ownership characteristics, their emotional connection the forests they manage, and the spatial patterns of nearby land uses, influence willingness to grow bioenergy feedstocks. We found conditional support for feedstock production, even among woodland owners with no history of active management. Landowners preferred higher economic returns for each management plan. However low-intensity harvest options were always preferred to more intensive management alternatives regardless of economic return, suggesting that these landowners may be more strongly motivated by aesthetic or quality-of-life concerns than feedstock revenues. Our analysis indicated preferences were dependent upon individual and environmental characteristics, with younger, more rural landowners significantly more interested in growing feedstocks relative to their older and more urban counterparts. While this study focuses on one small sample of urban forest owners, our results do suggest that policy makers and resource managers can better inform stand-level decision-making by understanding how feedstock production preferences vary across populations.     

How to achieve fairness in payments for ecosystem services? Insights from agrobiodiversity conservation auctions

This paper provides insights into the multiple dimensions of fairness in payments for ecosystem services (PES) using the results of pilot agrobiodiversity conservation auctions. In two sites in the Bolivian and Peruvian Andes farming groups bid for payments for the conservation of traditional crop varieties. We assess different payment rules relating to how to allocate payments among groups subject to a fixed conservation budget. The discriminatory, uniform and conditional payment rules tested in these case studies incorporate alternative principles of fairness, while resulting in varying conservation and distributional outcomes. The latter are measured in terms of the distributional equality of payments among farmers and groups, and the distributional effects of payments on different types of groups. Findings indicate that conservation and distributional outcomes are highly sensitive to the payment rule chosen and vary across study sites. There may be contexts where cost-effectiveness does not need to be traded-off against fairness. Yet given the number of competing fairness considerations, achieving PES outcomes that are perceived as fair is very challenging.