Rural labour markets: the welsh example

This paper examines the rural labour market within Wales over the last decade. Data from the Labour Force Survey and the New Earnings Survey are used to compare trends in economic activity rates, employment, education and earnings in rural Wales with the rest of the country. In addition to the rural-urban comparison, evidence presented from other rural labour market studies is used to establish similarities between the rural labour market within Wales and the rest of the UK. In this respect, the paper collects evidence from which the need for differential labour market policy between the rural and urban area can be assessed.     

The Assessment: labour markets and welfare

Rapid and radical changes in the labour markets of developedeconomies have had profound implications for the welfare andwell-being of their citizens. This Assessment argues that thereis still considerable divergence in labour-market processesand outcomes across countries. This is likely to remain thecase. Nevertheless, there is a range of common problems. Importantamong these are what is happening to the rights of people atwork and how they should be protected. Views about appropriaterights have altered in recent years. In the future, debate aboutthis is likely to be even more closely linked to debate aboutlabour-market flexibility. The Assessment goes on to discussa variety of distributional problems related to joblessnessand low pay, and evaluates policy interventions designed totackle them. Although there has been progress in terms of policyeffectiveness, interventions are fragile in helping people toescape from cycles of repeated misfortune and long-term disadvantage.     

The dynamic effects of shocks to labour markets: evidence from OECD countries

This paper uses a set of plausible long-run identifying restrictionson a three-variable system, including output growth, real wagegrowth, and the unemployment rate, to isolate three independentstructural shocks which drive fluctuations in those variablesin a sample of 16 OECD countries during 1950-96. These shocksare interpreted as aggregate demand, productivity, and laboursupply disturbances. As a by-product of the previous analysis,the cyclical behaviour of real wages in response to a demandshock is re-examined and two indices of real wage rigidity arederived.     

Japanese labour in the 1990s: stability and stagnation

We review the state of the labour market and employment practicesin Japan over the past 15 years and try to evaluate the natureof the changes that have been occurring. We also look at howgovernment policy has reacted to the conditions in the labourmarket and what implications this has for the future. Althoughthere has been a continual shift of resources away from manufacturingand agriculture into services, employment practices have notbeen changing so rapidly, and job protection is actually stronger.This, along with wage restraint, accounts for why unemploymenthas only increased by some 2.5 percentage points during almosta decade of stagnation. We also note that much government policyhas acted to maintain existing employment practices and thatlabour economists are divided as to whether or not this is agood thing.     

Trade in the shadow of power: Japanese industrial exports in the interwar years

During the interwar years, Japanese industrialization accelerated alongside the expansion of industrial exports to regional markets. Trade blocs in the interwar years were used as an instrument of imperial power to foster exports and as a substitute for productivity to encourage industrial production. The historiography on Japanese industrialization in the interwar years describes heavy industries’ interests in obtaining access to wider markets to increase economies of scale and reduce unit costs. However, this literature provides no quantitative evidence that proves the success of those mechanisms in expanding exports. In this article we scrutinize how Japan—a relatively poor country—used colonial as well as informal power interventions to expand regional markets for its exports, especially for the most intensive human capital sector of the industrializing economy. Our results show that Japanese exports in 1938 would have been around one-third smaller had no empire ever existed, which indicates an outstanding effect of empire in the international context.     

Making local labour markets work: A Scottish case study

With the launch of Employment Training (ET) in 1988 there has been increasing interest in providing training that is closely tied to the demands of the labour market. The establishment of ET came about because of a concern that unemployment was still very high at a time when large numbers of jobs were being created. Part of the explanation for this apparent paradox was that the unemployed lacked the motivation and skills to get jobs. The solution, as proposed by ET, was to provide counseling and training (Department of Employment, 1988). Insofar as this recognised that factors other than a lack of skills stopped the unemployed getting work it was to be welcomed. However there are other things that need to be taken account of if labour markets are to work effectively (Haughton and Peck, 1989). Many of these are outside of the control of the unemployed.     

The decline of child labour: labour markets and family economies in Europe and North America since 1830

This survey of the ‘adulting’ of national and family economies argues that understanding of the segmentation of labour markets and of the male breadwinner has been impoverished by a failure to consider age alongside gender, and that we are at best in a situation where contextualized studies may provide some insight into reasons for the decline of child labour. With respect to family economies, there has been very little study of the timing or cause of the diminution of children's contributions, or of how, if at all, that decline is related to the rise in married women's participation in the labour force.     

The Japanese labour market during the global financial crisis and the role of non-standard work: A micro perspective

This paper analyses aggregate labour dynamics during the global financial crisis in Japan and the role of non-standard work using micro data. The analysis proceeds in two steps. First, using comprehensive establishment-level datasets for the period 1991–2009, it provides a detailed portrait of the adjustment behaviour of establishments at the micro level. Second, it compares aggregate labour market dynamics during the global financial crisis with that observed during the 1997 crisis and decomposes the observed differences into components that can be attributed to changes in the micro-adjustment behaviour of Japanese establishments, changes in the incidence of non-standard work and changes in the distribution of shocks across establishments. It finds that the incidence of non-standard work has increased considerably, worker turnover is much higher among non-standard than standard workers and adjustments in working-time are less important for non-standard workers. Counterfactual simulations suggest that the employment response during the global crisis would have been smaller if the incidence of non-standard work remained at the level observed during the 1997 crisis. The relatively small employment response observed during the global financial crisis is therefore driven by factors other than the increase in the incidence of non-standard work.     

日本企业营销模式的变迁：从独立到合作

在过去几十年中,日本企业最为流行的营销模式是独立营销模式,但是由于日本企业所面临的经营环境的变化,独立营销模式受到了前所未有的挑战,许多日本企业正试图用一种风格迥异的合作营销模式代替它。本文论述了日本近年来经营环境的变化以及由此引发的营销模式的变革和发展方向。     

The ERM and structural change in European labour markets: A study of 10 countries

The ERM and Structural Change in European Labour Markets: A Study of 10 Countries. — This paper tests for structural changes in European labour markets and attempts to associate them with the evolution of the ERM as well as with political and institutional developments. The results indicate that diverging sacrifice ratios, rather than tax wedge and productivity effects may be the strongest impediment to labour market convergence in the transition from the ERM to full economic and monetary union. The empirical work indicates that the ERM may have provided some pressure towards more symmetric responses to shocks, but the changes have not been great.     

Estimating the costs and benefits of EMU: The impact of external shocks on labour markets

Estimating the Costs and Benefits of EMU: The Impact of External Shocks on Labour Markets. — Discussions of costs and benefits of EMU usually rely on the optimum currency area approach: when external shocks hit the economy, it is easier to adjust the exchange rate than domestic prices or wages. We find that external shocks have little impact on unemployment, but are more important to manufacturing employment. Taking into account potential shock absorbers (exchange rates, fiscal and monetary policy) leaves results unchanged. By contrast, internal shocks, strongly influence (un)employment. The loss of the exchange rate instrument will not lead to massive unemployment after external shocks.     

The changing nature of artisanal work and occupations: Important for understanding labour markets

ABSTRACT

The social and political conditions within which artisans are required to work have shifted globally. The South African policy concern is to train bigger quantities and improve artisanal skills quality, while simultaneously providing more opportunities for young, black and women artisans. A concern for academia is how this shifting milieu will impact on our understanding of artisanal work and occupations and what implications should this have for further research. Using the concept of occupational boundaries, we investigate, at a micro level, real and perceived change to work in three artisanal trades. The study shows that while some elements have changed, the division of labour reinforces the traditional scope of artisanal work in relation to other occupational groups. The findings reconfirm the complex relationship between changes to work and the demand for skills, and importantly highlight the sociology of work as a critical but undervalued dimension in labour market analysis.     

Sticky Swedes and flexible Finns: manufacturing labour markets in Finland and Sweden during the Great Depression

ABSTRACT

Nominal wage stickiness is a popular explanation for the greatness of the Great Depression. According to the sticky-wage explanation, the slow adjustment of nominal wages raised real wages above the market-clearing level, causing a reduction of output and labour, thus increasing unemployment. Explanations for nominal wage stickiness are usually sought within the labour-market institutions and their changes after the First World War. This paper examines the role of labour-market institutions by comparing manufacturing labour markets in Finland and Sweden. These two countries had quite similar economic structures, trade patterns, and exchange rate policies, but different systems of industrial relations. Results indicate that stronger trade unions and collective bargaining made nominal wages stickier in Sweden, while in Finland, where collective agreements did not exist, unions were weaker, and wage adjustment was more flexible. As a result, real product wages rose in Sweden but fell in Finland. This created in Sweden stronger pressure for reducing labour input than in Finland. Our results show on one hand that labour market institutions clearly influenced the course of the Great Depression, but on the other hand that they alone do not explain the different economic outcomes during the depression and the recovery.     

Size and liquidity effects in Japanese regional stock markets

This paper assesses the effectiveness of traded turnover, Amihud (2002) and Liu (2006) metrics in measuring illiquidity, as used in a multifactor CAPM. The performance of this model is contrasted using a unique sample from Japan’s regional stock exchanges, namely Sapporo, Nagoya, Fukuoka, Osaka and Tokyo. The evidence suggests that size effects are important in Tokyo, liquidity plays a more important role in the conditional modelling of returns particularly in the smaller markets of Sapporo, Fukuoka and Nagoya where costs of equity are highest.     

An analysis of the role of international capital markets in providing funds to developing countries

Zusammenfassung Eine Analyse der Bedeutung der internationalen Kapitalm?rkte für die Versorgung der Entwicklungsl?nder mit Kapital. — Es besteht ein dauernder und wachsender Bedarf der Entwicklungsl?nder an ausl?ndischem Kapital. Bemühungen, die Wirtschaftshilfe zu erh?hen, waren in einer Reihe von Geberl?ndern erfolgreich, aber einzelne gr?\ere L?nder haben die Hilfe vor kurzem eingeschr?nkt und sind mit einer sehr eingehenden und nicht sehr vielversprechenden überprüfung ihrer Hilfsprogramme besch?ftigt. Daher verringern sich die Aussichten auf eine Deckung des Bedarfs durch ausl?ndische Regierungshilfe, w?hrend der Mangel zunimmt. Die sechziger Jahre brachten eine Neubelebung der internationalen Kapital-m?rkte. Deshalb haben einige Beobachter die M?glichkeit diskutiert, da\ Entwicklungsl?nder in Zukunft in der Lage sein k?nnten, sich ausl?ndisches Kapital durch die Ausgabe internationaler Anleihen zu beschaffen. In der vorliegenden Abhandlung wird versucht, diese neue Kapitalbeschaffungsm?glichkeit für Entwicklungsl?nder zu beschreiben und in ihrer Gr?\enordnung abzusch?tzen. Der erste Abschnitt gibt einen historischen überblick. Die Gr?\e, die Struktur und der Verfall der internationalen Kapitalm?rkte in den zwanziger und drei\iger Jahren wird er?rtert, wobei besonderer Nachdruck auf die Erfahrungen der Entwicklungsl?nder gelegt wird. Der zweite Abschnitt beschreibt die Wiederbelebung und den Aufschwung der internationalen Kapitalm?rkte in den sechziger Jahren und die fortdauernden Hindernisse gegen diese Art der Kapitalbeschaffung für Entwicklungsl?nder. Das Schlu\kapitel analysiert die Ma\nahmen zur Verbesserung der Struktur und Leistungsf?higkeit der internationalen Kapitalm?rkte und gibt einen überblick über die M?glichkeiten, den Zugang von Entwicklungsl?ndern zur Kapitaleinfuhr zu erleichtern.

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Résumé Une analyse du r?le que jouent les marchés internationaux du capital dans l’approvisionnement des pays à développer. — Les pays à développer ont un besoin continu et croissant de capitaux étrangers. Un certain nombre de pays ont su mener à bien leurs efforts pour augmenter l’aide aux pays à développer, mais plusieurs grands pays ont, récemment, réduit leur aide et sont en train de réévaluer leurs programmes considérablement et d’une manière qui ne promet pas beaucoup. Ainsi, pendant que les besoins augmentent, les chances d’y pourvoir au moyen d’aides gouvernementales extérieures diminuent. Pendant les 1960, on a vu une reprise des marchés internationaux du capital. Certains observateurs de ce développement prétendent que les pays à développer pourraient désormais profiter des émissions internationales d’obligations pour se procurer du capital étranger. L’article que voici se propose de décrire et d’évaluer cette nouvelle source potentielle de capitaux pour le développement économique. La première section de l’article donne un aper?u historique. L’étendue, la nature et le déclin des marchés internationaux du capital de 1920 à 1940 sont examinés, tout en soulignant les expériences des pays à développer. La seconde section est consacrée à la reprise et l’accroissement des marchés internationaux du capital pendant les 1960, ainsi qu’àl’impossibilité de se servir de cette source de capital où se trouvaient les pays à développer pendant tout ce temps. La dernière section analyse les moyens d’améliorer la structure et le fonctionnement des marchés internationaux du capital afin d’y faciliter l’accès aux pays à développer.

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Resumen Un análisis sobre la importancia de los mercados internacionales de capital para la aportación de recursos internacionales a los países en desarrollo. — Los países en vía de desarrollo necesitan permanentemente y en cuantía creciente recursos internacionales para financiar sus planes de desarrollo. El empe?o por aumentar el volumen de los recursos aportados por los países desarrollados ha tenido éxito en una serie de casos; pero sucede que varios de los países donantes clave o bien han reducido recientemente sus aportaciones, o bien están pasando revista a sus programas de ayuda. De ahí que las perspectivas de poder cubrir las necesidades de divisas por medio de recursos públicos externos no sean muy halagüe?as. Como en los a?os sesenta los mercados internacionales de capital experimentaron una reactivación, algunos observadores han discutido la posibilidad de que en el futuro los países en via de desarrollo movilicen recursos externos directamente, mediante la negociación de empréstitos internacionales. En el presente trabajo los autores intentan analizar este método de obtención de recursos externos y estimar su importancia cuantitativa. El primer párrafo consiste en un repaso histórico. Se estudia en él la amplitud, la estructura y el deterioro de los mercados internacionales de capital en los a?os veinte y treinta, prestando especial atención a las experiencias hechas por los países en vías de desarrollo. En la segunda parte los autores describen la reactivación y el auge que experimentaron los mercados internacionales de capital y los obstáculos contínuos con que se encontraron los países en vía de desarrollo al querer hacer uso de esta fuente de financiación interna. En la sección final, se analizan las medidas necesarias para mejorar la estructura y capacidad de los mercados internacionales de capital y se esbozan las posibilidades de facilitar a los países en vía de desarrollo el acceso a los mercados internacionales de capital.

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Riassunto Un’analisi del signincato dei mercati internazionali dei capitali per l’approvigionamento di capitali dei Paesi in sviluppo. — Da parte dei Paesi in sviluppo esiste un continuo e crescente bisogno di capitale straniero. Sforzi per aumentare gli aiuti economici furono coronati da successo in una serie di Paesi fornitori, ma singoli più grandi Paesi hanno di recente ridotto gli aiuti e sono impegnati in un riesame minuzioso ma non molto promettente dei loro programmi di aiuto. Perciò si riducono le speranze per una copertura del bisogno per mezzo di aiuti di governi stranieri, mentre la penuria aumenta. Gli anni sessanta portarono ad una rianimazione dei mercati internazionali dei capitali. Per questo alcuni osservatori hanno discusso la possibilità che, in futuro, Paesi in sviluppo potrebbero essere in grado di procurarsi capitale straniero mediante l’emissione di prestiti internazionali. Nel presente studio si tenta di descrivere questa nuova possibilità di approvigionamento di capitali per i Paesi in sviluppo e di valutarla nella sua portata. Il primo capitolo offre un quadro storico. Sono esaminate la grandezza, la struttura e la decadenza dei mercati internazionali dei capitali negli anni venti e trenta, laddove spéciale risalto è posto alle esperienze dei Paesi in sviluppo. Il secondo capitolo descrive la rianimazione e l’impulso dei mercati internazionali dei capitali negli anni sessanta e i continui ostacoli a questa forma dell’approvigionamento di capitali per i Paesi in sviluppo. Il capitolo finale analizza le misure per il miglioramento della struttura ed efficienza di rendimento dei mercati internazionali dei capitali e dà uno sguardo sintetico sulle possibilità di facilitare l’accesso di Paesi in sviluppo all’importazione di capitali.