Conclusion: changes in Asian HRM – implications for theory and practice

A number of significant events have impacted on Asian countries over the period sine 1997 and the Asian crisis. This means that much of what we know about Asia is outdated and may well be irrelevant. It is for this reason that this contribution re-examines a number of Asian countries to explore how human resource management (HRM) has changed over this period. A model that can be used for a comparative analysis of HRM, and one that allows the various levels of change to be assessed, is presented. This is followed by an overview of the volume's contents with the common focus on the changes that have occurred over this period.     

Change and continuity: recent developments in HRM in the Philippines

There is a tendency in many country studies to investigate a single sector and to imply that the sector is representative of the whole. In the realm of human resource management practices, the case of the Philippines suggests this is not a helpful approach. This essay suggests that, within the Philippines, there are differences between sectors of the economy. The purpose of this paper is three-fold: to build upon Maragtas Amante's 1997 study on HRM practices in the Philippines, to demonstrate differences in HRM practices in the import substitution industrialization (ISI) and export-oriented industrialization (EOI) sectors and to highlight the changes (if any) that have taken place over the past few years. This study suggests that, over the past few decades there has been a great deal of divergence between the ISI and EOI sectors. However, recently there has been evidence that the ISI sector has been adopting HRM practices that have been more characteristic of those in the EOI sector. The reason for this change is that the regulatory protection the ISI sector once enjoyed is no longer available. In addition, the Asian Financial Crisis has contributed to the change by breaking down union resistence that had previously prevented change in the ISI sector.     

The post-Asian financial crisis: changes in HRM in Taiwanese enterprises

The changes in the macro-economic environment, due to the recent Asian crisis, have been an important stimulus to organizational and human resource management (HRM) changes in Taiwanese enterprises. This essay tackles these responses by looking at individual firms, using a case study approach. The pattern of organizational responses introduced in these companies has exhibited a variety of different characteristics. Most have implemented strategies towards enhancing the individual firms' competitiveness. The situation has changed since Chen's research in 1997, marked by differences between a period of economic boom and a period of economic recession. Consequently, key economic indicators and labour market conditions have changed, so HRM practices have evolved too. Generally speaking, the adoption of international standardized HRM practices is one such move that is now becoming more general in Taiwan.     

HRM in Thailand: a post-1997 update

This essay updates an earlier study of human resource management (HRM) practices in Thailand, focusing specifically on HRM in the post-1997 Asian financial crisis. HRM in Thailand has undergone gradual, but significant, change, with movement away from more traditional styles of HRM and management rooted in personalism and social relationships, toward more flexible employment systems in which employment opportunities are based on merit and performance rather than connections and personal characteristics. These changes are clearly more pronounced in subsidiaries of multinational corporations, particularly those based in Western countries.     

Flexible labour markets and individualized employment: the beginnings of a new Japanese HRM system?

In an earlier study we reported that human resource management (HRM) in Japan was best characterized by continuity with some changes to assessment and pay practices. It is now over five years since we mapped out the changes taking place in Japanese HRM. This contribution reviews some of the changes over this period and considers the future directions of HRM. The essay commences with a discussion of the important contextual factors and issues underpinning HRM including employer proposals for reform. The next section then explores changes taking place in employment, remuneration and evaluation. This is supplemented by a more general assessment of the key changes occurring in Japanese HRM. The essay concludes with a discussion on why such changes are occurring, whether the changes constitute a convergence towards the Western model and the implications for HRM and theory development.     

‘China-focused’ human resource management? A critical analysis of a decade of journal-published research, 2008–2017

This article seeks to provide reliable insights into current trends of ‘China-focused’ Human Resource Management (HRM) vis-à-vis the need for a more ‘contextualized’ framework. It tries to capture the status quo of the literature in the field – in terms of evaluating quality indicators (such as citation rates), author information (such as affiliations), methodological data (such as sample foci) and content-related facts (such as subject matters), amongst others. Ten SSCI-indexed journals were systematically selected for the study, as they explicitly focus on HRM and/or on Asian management issues. The findings are based on an in-depth analysis of 159 articles published between 2008 and 2017. A rich content analysis is presented to illustrate current trends. Although the results have to be treated with caution, I provide some evidence for what numerous scholars recently point out may be the case for the field of China-focused HRM: A contextual and methodological narrowing. It is hoped that the present article may add to the debate on the future of the field.     

Using complex networks analysis to assess the evolution of international economic integration: The cases of East Asia and Latin America

This paper exploits recently-developed indicators based on network analysis to investigate the pattern of international integration followed by East Asian countries and compares it with the Latin American performance. Standard trade openness indicators fall short of portraying the peculiarity of the Asian experience, and of explaining why other emerging markets with similar characteristics have been less successful over the last 25 years. The analysis offers an alternative perspective on the issue regarding international economic integration by taking into account the whole structure of international trade relationships and by determining both the position of countries in the world trade network, and its evolution over time. We find that East Asian countries are more integrated into the world economy, as they have moved from the periphery of the network towards its core. Our results support the idea that the degree of openness matters but it is not enough to characterize economic integration. The number and identity of trade partners, and the specific individual structure of trade for each country, need to be incorporated in order to fully characterize international economic integration. By doing so, it is possible to argue that the integration process of the East Asian countries mirrors their high economic performance, while the lower degree of integration of Latin America can be related to the lack of economic development of the region, even though their degree of openness has increased.     

The Question of Ethical Hypocrisy in Human Resource Management in the U.K. and Irish Charity Sectors

Whilst there is a growing volume of literature exploring the ethical implications of organisational change for HRM and the ethical aspects of certain HRM activities, there have been few published U.K. studies of how HR managers actually behave when faced with ethical dilemmas in their work. This paper seeks to enhance the foundations of such knowledge through an examination of the influence of organisational values on the ethical behaviour of Human Resource Managers within a sample of charities in the U.K. and the Republic of Ireland. A qualitative research design is adopted utilising semi-structured interviews. Findings highlight ethical inconsistency in people management in the charity sector arising from the clear application of strong and explicit organisational values to external client groups but their limited influence on people management strategies and practices within the organisation. Many of the ethical issues faced by HRM professionals in both countries arise from this inconsistency. In their handling of ethical dilemmas, the HRM professionals exhibit a combination of a care ethic and a concern for justice but it is also clear that in situations of management intransigence, a desire to be conscience driven often gives way to a contingent approach. Whilst respondents considered it inappropriate for the HRM function to be the conscience of the organisation, it is seen to have a key role in providing management with advice on ethical action. However, the ability of HRM to influence ethical behaviour is highly dependent on the status of the function within the organisation.     

HRM practices affecting extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of knowledge receivers and their effect on intra-MNC knowledge transfer

This paper explores why and how human resource management (HRM) matters for knowledge transfer within multinational corporations. It is built on the premise that there are certain HRM practices influencing extrinsic and intrinsic motivation of knowledge receivers. It is found that complementarity among HRM practices exists but does not always have a positive effect on knowledge transfer. Three hypotheses derived from these arguments are tested on data from 92 subsidiaries of Danish multinational corporations located in 11 countries.     

Emerging Asia: Decoupling or Recoupling

In this paper, we investigate the degree of real economic interdependence between emerging East Asian and major industrial countries to shed light on the heated debate over the ‘decoupling’ of emerging East Asia. We first document the evolution of macroeconomic interdependence for emerging East Asian economies through changing trade and financial linkages at both the regional and global levels. Then, by employing a panel vector autoregression (VAR) model, we estimate the degree of real economic interdependence before and after the 1997/98 Asian financial crisis. Empirical findings show that real economic interdependence increased significantly in the post‐crisis period, suggesting ‘recoupling’, rather than decoupling, in recent years. Output shocks from major industrial countries have a significant positive effect on emerging East Asian economies. More interestingly, the reverse is also true. Output shocks from emerging East Asia (and China) have a significant positive effect on output in major industrial countries. The result suggests that macroeconomic interdependence between emerging East Asia and industrial countries have become ‘bi‐directional’, defying the traditional notion of the ‘North–South relationship’ as one of ‘uni‐directional’ dependence.     

Fiscal Stimulus,Agricultural Growth and Poverty in Asia

Recent debates on a sustainable recovery of the global economy have tended to overemphasise the ‘savings glut’ hypothesis and the unavoidable imperative of higher consumption in China and other emerging Asian countries. That oversaving and not underinvestment is coming in the way of a quicker and more durable recovery is not just simplistic but misleading from a medium‐term growth perspective for emerging Asian countries and other developing countries in this region. Drawing upon country panel data for developing countries and a subsample of Asian countries during the period 1991–2007, this study makes a case for a bold and coordinated fiscal stimulus, directed to stimulating agricultural and overall growth, and mitigation of poverty and hunger. Our simulations further suggest that poverty reduction is likely to be larger if the fiscal stimulus is directed to social spending in health and education sectors. Indeed, if our simulations of fiscal impacts have any validity, the dire predictions of millions getting trapped in poverty and hunger may turn out to be exaggerated. The prospects of a strong recovery led by fiscal stimulus are thus real and achievable.     

Shift‐contagion Vulnerability in the MENA Stock Markets

As part of a broader financial development reform agenda, the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) countries have successfully expanded and revitalised their stock markets over the last decade. Whereas previous contributions have investigated efficiency, international integration and portfolio diversification opportunities, very little is known about these markets’ vulnerability to external financial crises. In this paper, we investigate shift‐contagion to the MENA region using a comprehensive battery of econometric tests for a number of different crises episodes: the 1997 Asian crisis, the 1998 Russian virus and its Brazilian sequel, the 2000 Turkish collapse, the 9/11 turmoil, the 2001 Argentinean crisis, the 2002 Enron/WorldCom scandal and the 2007–09 global financial crisis. We found that Turkey, Israel and Jordan were the most vulnerable markets over the 1997–2009 period, followed by Tunisia, Morocco, Egypt and Lebanon. Our results also highlight heterogeneous but increasing levels of sensitivity to external financial shocks, especially during the recent global financial crisis. From a financial point of view, this suggests that MENA‐based diversification strategies may be relatively inefficient during periods of global turmoil. From an economic point of view, our results suggest that stock market development also involves potential destabilisation costs. This issue should be acknowledged and addressed by policymakers if these countries are to ensure a smooth transition towards international financial integration.     

Changes and continuities in South Korean HRM

The operating context of South Korean human resource management (HRM) has undergone radical shifts since we wrote our first piece in 1997 for a similar collection to this. This has undoubtedly influenced the practice of HRM. Therefore, the focus of this piece is to compare the current situation with the past and delineate the amount and type of such change vis-à-vis continuity in HRM. The contextual factors and issues, political and economic background, labour market situation, the 1997 Asian financial crisis and ramifications, are analysed. Then future possible scenarios and key issues are outlined.     

Change in Asia: a review of management theory and research related to human resources

Many competing hypotheses have been advanced to account for human resource management (HRM) change. The present review examines the theoretical development and empirical study in HRM change in Asia in the early twenty-first century (2000–2006). Three research themes common to HRM change are discussed: (1) change context is about the issues of forces facilitating or hindering HRM change; (2) change process includes pace, sequence and magnitude of HRM change progress; and (3) change direction is about resultant change outcome. Comparisons of HRM change are made within Asian economies as well as between Asia and other regions. It is concluded that the interplay among different perspectives can produce a wide variety of more complex understanding of change context while a longitudinal approach can add value to explain dynamic process and resultant direction.     

Immigration and international prices

This paper considers the relation between immigration and prices in a number of countries across the world over the period from 1990 to 2006. Immigration is shown to have a negative impact on international relative prices. A 10% increase in the share of immigrant workers in total employment decreases the prices of final products by as much as 3%. Our results suggest that the tendency of this factor of production to relocate to relatively expensive high-wage countries exerts downward pressure on prices of tradeables and non-tradeables there relative to other locations. The effect of immigration on prices is more evident for goods consumed by immigrants as compared to goods produced by immigrants.     

基于贸易视角的人民币“区域化”的微观经济分析

从贸易的角度对人民币“区域化”的收益以及相应的效应做了分析,通过对中国与亚洲其他国家贸易情况,以及中国经济发展对亚洲国家贸易流量和贸易结构等方面的影响来判断在亚洲贸易发展的趋势下,人民币“区域化”的可行性。研究结果表明,中国对外贸易发展对亚洲其他国家的贸易流量、贸易结构和市场转移等方面的影响已经为人民币“区域化”创造了必要条件,而人民币“区域化”也将亚洲国家间贸易的发展提升到一个更高的层次。     

Lessons for African Economies from Irish and East Asian Industrial Policy

When comparisons in terms of industrial policy lessons to be learned have taken place, it has tended to be solely vis-a-vis the ‘development state’ East Asian experience. This paper broadens the analysis and considers lessons which African countries can learn from other so-called ‘tiger’ economies including Ireland and the East and South Asian countries. We recognise that the latter are indeed clearly significant as many African countries at the time of independence had economic structures and levels of income quite similar to East Asian countries, yet have grown at vastly different rates since then. Exploring why this has been the case can thus offer important insights into possibilities for industrial policy. Yet this comes with some health warnings over East Asian experience. We suggest that another important contribution can come by looking at the Irish example, given its emphasis on corporatism rather than simply relying on state direction in the operation of industrial policy. The Irish model is also more democratic in some senses and has protected workers’ rights during the development process in contrast to the often highly dirigisite East Asian model. Overall we suggest that some immediate actions are needed, notably with regard to the financial system in small African economies. Without such changes, a poorly functioning financial system will continue to keep investment at low levels. In relation to the small size of the African economies, the paper recommends regional integration and sufficient overseas development assistance (ODA) for infrastructural development. It is also critical to note that the various small African economies each face their own industrial and economic development challenges, and that a ‘one size fits all’ approach is not appropriate; rather the key is to tailor policies and systems to the unique opportunities and development challenges in each African country.     

Japanese Companies in China: Problems of Human Resource Management

Much of China's recent economic growth has been driven by foreign funded enterprises (FFEs). They continue to invest heavily, making China the largest recipient of foreign direct investment (FDI) among all developing countries. Japanese firms have already shifted the focus of their FDI from the US to Asian countries, including China. However, there are many difficulties which Japanese companies have yet to over-come, especially in human resource management (HRM). Although FDI in China has become a significant phenomenon, it is still under-researched, and the role of Japanese firms and the transferability of Japanese-style management figure prominently amongst the relevant issues. Initial information allows us to make conclusions about which cultural, production, and product factors influence the importation of business systems.     

Factors influencing the foreign entry mode of Asian and Latin-American banks

The majority of past studies on the foreign market mode of entry have focused on manufacturing industries. Although some studies have explored the entry mode decisions of the banking industry, most of them have adopted the case study method, and systematic studies have been relatively few. This study intends to fill this gap through an investigation of 7041 Asian and Latin-American bank branches covering the period from 1999 to 2005. The analytical results demonstrate that both Asian and Latin-American banks are market seekers. However, Latin-American banks are not customer followers. In addition, the larger the scale of the bank or the greater the net interest margin the more likely it is that high-control entry modes will be adopted. In contrast, in countries in Asia with a greater cultural distance, banks tend to establish low-control entry modes to avoid uncertainty. However, this does not apply in the case of Latin America.     

The globalisation–welfare state nexus: Evidence from Asia

How globalisation influences social expenditure has been examined for industrialised countries. Globalisation has often been shown to be positively associated with social expenditure in established industrialised countries, a finding that corroborates the compensation hypothesis. Scholars have focused on industrialised countries, because social expenditure is difficult to measure in developing countries. I use new data on social expenditure for Asian non‐OECD countries. Globalisation is measured by the new KOF Globalisation Index. My results do not suggest that globalisation influenced social expenditures in Asia. Neither do the results suggest that the nexus between globalisation and social expenditures varied across high‐income countries, such as Hong Kong and Singapore, and lower‐income Asian countries or across Asian regions. It is conceivable that Asian citizens did not demand increasing social support when globalisation proceeded rapidly because they enjoyed family and other private assistance. Asian countries also have weaker tax and labour market institutions than OECD countries and have therefore more difficulties in increasing social expenditure.