The determinants of best-practice technology

This study examines the mechanism underlying the advances in the forefront of technical knowledge. A case study of the growth in the maximum capacity of turbogenerators is presented. Two main determinants of technological change emerge in the light of available evidence. One is the accumulated experience of a practical nature. The other is the scale of the larger system for the use of technology. The role of these twin processes of learning and scaling is shown to be of a fundamental nature. In particular, they account for a remarkably simple law of an otherwise complex system of technological innovation in electric power industry: the ratio of maximum unit capacity to total installed capacity remains relatively constant over long periods of time. The study has further implications for the national technology strategy. They are discussed.     

Comparison of patterns of research effectiveness and output and their stability across six countries*

The focus of the study is an exploration of the stability of relationships between characteristics of research groups and various dimensions of the effectiveness of research activities across different national settings. The analysis is based on data collected by a Unesco coordinated international research team in six European countries. Data were collected by means of a survey of research groups engaged in research and experimental development activities in a variety of scientific disciplines, primarily in the natural and technological sciences. The total sample consists of 1,222 research groups. From a wide variety of data a set of indices describing the age, patterns of communication, management, diversity, morale and inter-personal relations in the unit, etc., were selected on the basis of observed correlations to measures of effectiveness in the samples of each of the six countries. By means of a residualization procedure the indices were adjusted for the effect of the type of institution end scientific field of research groups to eliminate differences with respect to these two structural dimensions in the samples of the different countries. Stepwise regression analyses were performed separately for each country to explore the relationships of the ‘adjusted’ indices to seven different measures of effectiveness. The common pattern of relationships of certain indices to give effectiveness measures is described and discussed. The recurrent relevance of certain variables in the individual countries across a variety of effectiveness measures is analysed. On the basis of these analyses a few ‘universal’ indices are isolated such as quality of research planning, communication with users of the research results, and the research morale as perceived by unit heads and scientists. These seem to have consistent, systematic and additive relationships across countries to most of the specific dimensions of research group effectiveness. In conclusion the theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed.     

Measuring innovativeness for the adoption of industrial products

This study evaluates two traditional methods of segmenting industrial markets based on firm innovativeness. There are two distinct innovativeness measures used in the literature. The first innovativeness measure is based on the time of adoption of a single product. Segmenting an industrial market based in this measure was found to be predictive of a firm's relative time of adoption of related products. The second innovativeness measure is based on the usage of multiple products at a single point in time. Segmentation based on this measure captured the degree of adoption or usage of a new product. However, neither of these measures captured both the time of adoption and the degree of adoption constructs of innovativeness. Therefore, a third innovativeness measure is proposed here which is a hybrid of the two traditional measures. This composite measure captured both innovativeness constructs.     

在住宅设计中应用质量功能展开(QFD)的探讨

目前，许多住宅的设计活动存在着各部件的设计之间缺乏有效交流的问题，结果导致设计各子过程接口模糊，信息得不到传递或被错误地传递，使设计及施工出现许多浪费，甚至导致质量问题。质量功能展开(QFD)是一种核心的质量工程技术，是一种产品开发和质量保证的方法论，可以有效地改善设计过程，及设计一施工接口，可以极大地提高住宅项目的质量和降低费用。质量屋(HOQ)是质量功能展开基本原理的核心，它由顾客需求、质量要素、关系矩阵、相关矩阵、顾客竞争性和技术竞争性评估所组成。通过对住宅项目设计应用QFD的研究，总结出5点经验。     

Communities of Practice versus Organizational Climate: Which One Matters More to Dispersed Collaboration in the Front End of Innovation?*

Dispersed collaboration provides many benefits such as members' closeness to local cultures and markets and reachability of talent worldwide. Hence, it is no surprise that dispersed collaboration is frequently being used by product development teams. A necessary but not sufficient condition for innovation performance is the sharing of tacit, non‐codified and explicit, codified knowledge by the team. Situated learning theory, however, predicts that tacit knowledge sharing will be largely prevented by “decontextualization.” Therefore, increasing usage of dispersed collaboration will decrease levels of tacit knowledge—crucial to innovation and organizational performance—in the business unit. This research investigates the moderating role of mechanisms believed to enable tacit knowledge transfer in the front end of innovation. Using data from 116 business units, the moderating role of communities of practice and organizational climate on the relationship between the proficiency of dispersed collaboration and front end of innovation performance is investigated. Encouragement of communities of practice is found to moderate the relationship between proficiency of dispersed collaboration and front end of innovation performance on the business unit level. More specifically, proficiency of dispersed collaboration is not related at all to front end of innovation performance in business units with low support for communities of practice; but a positive relationship exists in business units with high support for communities of practice. This study does not provide support for the moderating effect of organizational climate on the relationship between proficiency in dispersed collaboration and front end of innovation performance. However, supportiveness of climate has a significant direct effect on front end of innovation performance. The findings of this study suggest that managers should simultaneously invest in increasing proficiency in dispersed collaboration and supporting communities of practice. Either one by itself is insufficient. Because of its significant direct effect, managers should also nurture an open climate favoring risk taking, trust, and open interaction.     

信任扩展与家族企业创新发展

关系主义、家族信任是华人家族企业的基本逻辑。从经济社会学的视角看 ,特殊主义的人际关系模式和家族主义价值观则是家族信任的基础。家族信任在中国民营企业创业发展的初期具有积极的作用。但随着企业规模的扩大 ,仅有家族信任是不能满足企业发展需要的。家族企业创新发展的关键就是要将家族信任扩展为社会信任     

Students' design of a biometric procedure in upper secondary school

Making the connection between science and technology might be important for students to learn to identify and solve problems and to acquire scientific knowledge and skills. The research reported in this article concerned the development of a design situation in a science classroom and the study of students performing in this situation. More specifically, the setting involved students’ design of a measurement procedure as a way of attaining understanding of the underlying scientific concepts. In fact, at higher secondary level, the classical experimental procedure of measuring facial angle is employed within the topic of human evolution to find out to which species a given human cranium belongs. At the same time, designing a procedure, instead of just executing it, is thought to entail higher odds for attaining teleological understanding. The development of the learning situation involved pursuing parallels between the expert design task as described in the literature and the assignment given to students. We proceeded through step-wise development of the learning situation that was successively tested out in the classroom. Our analysis of the student-devised procedures revealed three issues regarding the graphical representation of angles, the reproducibility of the points and the communicational demands of the situation. Students used both prior knowledge (e.g. about evolution), and new knowledge about cranium anatomy and angles. They also exhibited new experimental skills like anticipating each experimental action. Such cognitive tasks which are at the origin of students’ activity make the situation approximate the goals of laboratory work by distancing it from the simple execution of a series of steps. Future research could be directed towards further exploring the benefits of an approach that combines essential characteristics of science and technology.     

再论自发过程及热力学过程判据

自发过程是热力学的一个重要概念,它与热力学第二定律相结合可指明过程的方向,然而到目前为止自发过程还没有一个令人满意的定义,给物理化学教学带来了困难。为了解决此问题,针对公认的自发过程的例子进行了严格分析和总结,在此基础上指出了目前典型的自发过程定义存在的问题,指明这些问题是由人们在讨论自发过程例子时没有注意系统的划分而导致的。给出了意义明确的自发过程定义,引出了给定条件下能发生的非自发过程的概念。将这些概念和热力学第二定律相结合,得到方便实用的过程方向判据,克服了以往自发过程定义的模糊性。     

考虑质押物损耗的存货质押融资决策模型

质押物的完整性是关系存货质押融资业务能否顺利开展的重要问题,质押物损耗长期困扰各参与方,阻碍了存货质押融资业务的顺利开展。考虑质押物损耗和第三方物流企业对质押物监管所带来的损耗节约的基础上,研究了存货质押融资最优决策。研究表明:当零售商的初始现金余额很低时,零售商的最优订购数量随着初始现金余额的增加而减少,之后零售商最优订货量保持不变,直到初始现金余额大于某一水平时,零售商的最优订货量开始增加;在零售商贷款且不存在破产风险时,银行的收益随着零售商初始现金余额增加而减少;当风险估值是需求的增函数时,零售商的最优订货量随利率减少。     

The division of labour in innovation management

Abstract
The literature shows a plethora of roles in innovation management. These roles have not provided a systematic and unique pattern of relationship which can serve as an instrument of organization. An analysis of the empirical findings shows the existence of division of labour in innovation management in a multiple role concept. The concepts like 'product champion', 'gatekeeper', 'sponsor', 'business innovator', 'technical innovator', 'promoter' etc. have some elements of commonality and complementarity. Two underlying principles can be delineated: division of labour according to phases of the innovation process and according to sources of power of the incumbents. An interaction model and a process linkage model for innovation management are developed to explain the different findings. These models help to integrate these empirical concepts and serve as guidelines for possible organization of the innovation process.     

胰岛素临床应用的现状与趋势——2005年～2007年上海市83家样本医院用药分析

目的了解胰岛素在上海市83家样本医院应用的现状与趋势，供生产、营销、使用等部门参考。方法调研上海市83家样本医院2005年-2007年应用制剂品种、金额、用量、构成比、增长率以及综合临床的情况。结果近年来应用胰岛素的金额和用量有较大幅度的增长，前10位制剂产品主要是天津诺和和美国礼来，2006年以后吉林通货甘舒霖30R进入，用量呈上升趋势。胰岛素类似物新品种甘精、门冬、赖脯胰岛素在临床上用量也开始逐渐增多。胰岛素制剂品种趋向多样化，可合理选用。结论胰岛素治疗糖尿病前景看好。     

企业制度化管理研究

制度化管理一直作为西方企业管理中的潜在命题存在，但是在缺失科学管理发展基础的中国企业，有必要突出制度化管理的意义。从企业管理发展史来看，制度化管理是工业革命和资本主义经济、技术发展的结果，同时制度化管理也是现代企业自身发展的需要。制度化管理是伴随西方管理对科学理性的追求而产生和发展的。制度化管理是组织理性的表现，企业的制度化本身能够在一定程度上反映企业的管理水平。对现阶段的中国民营企业而言，制度化程度是衡量企业管理水平的重要标准。     

中国进口贸易技术溢出效应研究——基于31个省区的面板数据

改革开放30多年来,在经济全球化快速推进的背景下,我国的经济、贸易都实现了持续、稳定的增长,对外贸易对经济增长贡献的突出地位进一步得到巩固和发展。但是,长期以来,重视出口贸易、低估甚至忽视进口贸易对本国科技水平提高、经济增长中的作用,是我国理论研究和政策实践的总体倾向。受这一政策倾向的影响,我国对外贸易发展不平衡加剧,贸易摩擦频发,技术含量低、贸易附加值少的问题日益凸显。本文首先对国内外的技术溢出相关文献进行梳理,在此基础上利用计量分析方法对我国进口贸易的技术溢出效应进行实证检验。在实证检验部分,分别从国家整体、分区域的角度,考察我国进口贸易技术溢出效应的区域差异。从而为相关政策的推出提供指引。     

Effectiveness of sales forecasting methods

Effective sales forecasting has become a prerequisite for successful management. Unfortunately, recognition of the need for more effective forecasts has not produced better results. It appears that forecast error is increasing rather than decreasing. This paper reports the findings of a study of forecasting systems in manufacturing firms. The importance of forecasting to firms, users and preparers of forecasts, forecasting techniques employed, use of macroeconomic data, treatment of inflation, forecasting error, and management of forecasting systems are covered in the paper. Conclusions and recommendations for improvement of forecasting systems are developed from the findings of the study.     

中国商业银行规模经济与范围经济的实证分析

本文通过对中国商业银行1996年到2001年的经营情况进行实证分析，估算出各家银行的规模经济系数和范围经济系数，发现大部分商业银行规模不经济而范围经济，规模不经济的程度与银行资产规模呈正相关关系，股份制商业银行的范围经济系数高于国有商业银行的范围经济系数，范围经济与银行资产规模没有必然的联系。在此基础上，本文提出了相应的政策主张。     

对"十一五"时期我国工业发展若干问题的探讨

“十一五”时期,我国经济的潜在增长率为9%-9.5%,实际增长率应保持在8%左右。为了实现经济的协调发展,必须降低投资率,提高消费率。提高消费率的重点是调节国民收入的初次分配关系,提高进城务工农民的工资待遇。资源短缺仍然是制约我国经济发展的突出矛盾,在增加资源供给的同时,必须继续严格控制人口增长。结构调整的重点是提高资源配置效率。推进产业升级,必须加快发展战略性产业。战略性产业选择的目标是培育资本和技术密集型产业的竞争优势,促进国民经济的物质技术装备转移到现代化的基础上来。发展高新技术武器装备制造业是一项不可懈怠的战略性任务。要防止高新技术产业的技术来源的“空心化”。由于市场竞争,生产集中化是一个必然趋势,生产要素不仅向优势企业集中,也同时向优势地区集中。     

Acceptable risk—an overview

This paper offers an overview of the concept of acceptable risk. Variations in the definition of risk are addressed as well as criteria for measuring and evaluating risk. Risk acceptance depends on many factors, some of which are highlighted. The myth of zero risk is addressed with relevant examples such as dioxin and the U.S. space program. Practical applications of acceptable risk concepts are discussed, featuring the RISK MATRIX from system safety MIL-STD-882. Some sample guidelines and benchmarks are offered.     

Zur Methodik von Effizienzbewertungen im energiewirtschaftlichen Kontext

In discussions concerning sustainability, climate change and the efficient use of resources, the terms energy efficiency, rational use of energy and resource efficiency are widely used. Each of those three terms corresponds to an assessment method. However, the terms and assessment methods are often used differently without an explicit definition of the actual approach. Therefore the major contribution of this article is the development of a framework of methodological characteristics to classify the three assessment methods.The three methodological characteristics of assessment methods are the definition of the object of investigation, the type of statement and the assessment setting. The assessment setting is specified by three criteria: balance boundary, aggregation level and measuring units.All three assessment methods rely on the concept of efficiency, defined as a utility-effort-ratio. The object of investigation influences the utility, which is formalized by a measuring unit. The balance boundary for the utility determines to what extent the utility is considered. The balance boundary for the effort describes which resources are captured for which upstream and downstream processes. The aggregation level describes the extent to which different resources are aggregated as one measuring unit. Monetary, physical or self-designed units are commonly used as measuring units.The plurality of possible manifestations of the balance boundary, the aggregation level and the measuring unit does not allow for a universally valid, precise definition of the three investigated assessment methods. Therefore the recommendations are: Firstly, when using an assessment method, the criteria of the framework should be used to document the approach. Secondly, the identification of the adequate assessment method should be based on a thorough discussion of goals and hierarchy of goals in politics.     

Thought, Action and Scientific Technology

Rationalists assign primacy to rational thought, not to action; irrationalists dispute this. This discrepancy should be recast in view of recent modifications of rationalism.Traditional rationalism ascribes rationality to demonstrated opinions; contemporary rationalism replaces this by some more moderate view. According to traditional rationalism the rationality of actions is borrowed from the rationality of the opinion on which they rest (given actors' goals and circumstances). This creates an unbridgeable chasm between thought and action. It is therefore better to view rationality as a quality of action alone, and take actors' knowledge to be a component of their circumstances, and their search for new knowledge as rational action. As the rationality of opinions, it is now viewed as a matter of tests, which is a rational activity, so that now thought and action may combine.Scientific technology invites further reform of the theory of rationality, with the rejection of the old view of it as applied demonstrable opinion. Technological conduct often rests on institutionalized opinions, not on actors' personal opinions: institutions determine levels of rationality and of social responsibility. Scientific technology depends more on skills than on information; it thus differs from fully articulated knowledge and is differently institutionalized.Scientific technology is an institutional complex of articulated knowledge and skills that depends on social responsibility. The irrationalist view of the primacy of tradition or of action precludes their rational control. Rational control is best attained by democratic legislation aimed at improving the performance level of technology and its contribution to the quality of life.     

Measuring and Explaining Changes in REIT Liquidity: Moving Beyond the Bid–Ask Spread

This paper investigates changes in REIT liquidity since the REIT boom of 1993. We use trade-by-trade data for REITs traded on the major U.S. exchanges to estimate and compare Kyle's (1985) measure of inverse liquidity for the 1993 and 1996 time periods. For our full sample of equity REITs, there is a significant increase in REIT liquidity in terms of the median price impact of trades. The increasing importance of the self-advised, self-managed organizational structure is found to be a major factor driving increased REIT liquidity. Our results imply a decline in the asymmetric information faced by market-makers. Our investigation of the changes in the size distribution and resulting price impacts of REIT trades over the 1993–1996 period yields evidence of increased importance of informed traders to REIT price dynamics. Our findings of increased liquidity indicate that the increase in adverse-selection costs due to the presence of more informed traders is more than offset by the increase in market thickness as a result of an increase in the number of uninformed (liquidity) traders.