Coaching models for leadership development: An integrative review

The purpose of this article was to describe and compare coaching models and to address their relevance to the advancement of leadership. Coaching has become a popular strategy for leadership development and change in complex environments. Despite increasing popularity, little evidence describes the necessity and impact of coaching. An integrative literature review from 1996 to 2010, retrieved through seven databases, reference tracking, and consultation with academic networks, led to inclusion of peer‐reviewed articles on coaching models. Themes and critical elements in the selected coaching models were analyzed. The search yielded 1,414 titles. Four hundred twenty‐seven abstracts were screened using inclusion/exclusion criteria, and 56 papers were retrieved for full‐text screening. Ten papers were included: two coaching models from health care settings, seven from business settings, and one from a medical education institution. Critical components of coaching models are: coach–coachee relationship, problem identification and goal setting, problem solving, transformational process, and mechanisms by which the model achieves outcomes. Factors that impact positive coaching outcomes are: coach's role and attributes, selection of coaching candidates and coach attributes, obstacles and facilitators to the coaching process, benefits and drawbacks of external versus internal coaches, and organizational support. The elements of coaching models identified in this review may be used to guide future research on the effectiveness of coaching as a leadership strategy.     

What Coaches Believe are Best Practices for Coaching: A Qualitative Study of Interviews from Coaches Residing in Asia and Europe

The industry of executive and leadership coaching has grown over the past decade, becoming an integral part of many leadership and executive training and development initiatives globally. As a result, research focusing on coaches in Asia and Europe may uncover useful best practices that could inform the field. Such knowledge would enable coaches to better understand how to work better with their client–leaders and can also inform and develop coaching practice and research. The purpose of our qualitative study was to understand, through the interviews of 12 practicing coaches residing in Asia and 19 practicing coaches residing in Europe, what their best practices are in one‐to‐one coaching engagements. Ten best practices from the coaches in Asia and six best practices from the coaches in Europe emerged. Each best practice is discussed as well as limitations, future research, and implications from the findings of our study.     

Blending service provider–client project teams to achieve client trust: Implications for project team trust,cohesion, and performance

The objective of the present research is to examine the effectiveness of “teaming with the client,” using blended service provider–client teams as an organizational strategy for achieving effective co‐production engagements. The results show that having a blended team creates a more trusting relationship between the project manager and client. The client's trust results in greater team trust, team cohesion, and team performance. However, the research also demonstrates an important limitation to the use of blended teams. In blended teams, when the client does not trust the project manager, significant problems arise for the team itself as compared to non‐blended teams.     

Exploring the connections among spiritual leadership,altruism, and trust in family businesses

The purpose of this study is to test the claim that the top manager family members’ altruism and trust with regard to other family members should be connected with these top managers’ spiritual leadership feature. Data are collected from the top manager family members, who are in charge of their family businesses in Beylikduzu Organized Industrial Zone. Many instruments’ items are used for spiritual leadership, altruism and trust. The scope of spiritual leadership is wider than those of altruism and trust; besides references to the family, spiritual leadership also includes references to the participants, their subordinates and their businesses. The participants’ spiritual leadership factors are powerfully and positively related with their altruism and trust with regard to other family members. If altruism and trust are posited to affect spiritual leadership factors, this effect is partly achieved. Only some items of altruism and trust can affect spiritual leadership feature. The literature points out that spiritual leadership is suitable for family businesses on the grounds that intra-family altruism and trust can be related with spiritual leadership feature. The current study proves this relationship. Such knowledge can be used for family business succession, mentoring and coaching applications in family businesses, conflict management towards the issues related with both the family and the business, and structuring family’s involvement in the business.     

Leadership development in selected leading Thai companies

This research examined leadership development (LD) and leadership development programs (LDPs) in three selected Thai businesses. The research purpose was to identify and explore the features, leaders' competencies, activities and programs, key elements, and critical issues of LDP in these organizations. A case‐study approach was employed as the research method. The data were collected through company documents, questionnaires, and interviews of managers who were directly responsible for leadership development in their organization. Three levels of LDPs were commonly found among the studied companies: those organized for supervisors, managers, and executives. Leaders' competencies were derived from the companies' vision, mission, and values, business drivers, and top management judgment. Development activities included formal training, development activities, and self‐initiative undertakings. Common key elements of LDPs were support from top management, adherence to human resource development (HRD) and business strategic plans, and emphasis on coaching and mentoring. The critical issues included top management trust in employees' abilities; competence and independence of local internal staff; evaluation of LDP effectiveness; level of engagement by potential company leaders; and costs of building, executing, and evaluating LDP.     

“Why did I do this?”: Understanding leadership behavior through a dynamic five‐factor model of leadership

Leadership theories referring to complex adaptive system theory (CAS) describe leadership as a dynamic process of interdependent, cooperating agents. However, research on leadership behavior focuses mainly on the leader as an influencing, active agent. This article offers a different perspective by focusing on factors that influence leadership behavior. A dynamic five‐factor model of leadership is introduced, which identifies (1) the leader's individual competence, (2) the group, (3) the organization, (4) the context, and (5) the immediate situation as all influencing factors on leadership behavior. To address the problem of the procedural nature of leadership behavior, the dynamic five‐factor model is combined with a scenario‐based approach. The scenario approach focuses on situational developments in a given context, whereby a previous situation influences a leader's behavior in the subsequent situation. By integrating the dynamic five‐factor model into a scenario approach, one can understand a leader's behavior in its procedural nature. The practical usability of the dynamic five‐factor model and the scenario approach was assessed in a leadership development program with 81 military officers. Structured feedback from participants indicated that the model and the approach were perceived as helpful and relevant for understanding leadership behavior.     

Human Resource Management Practices and Trust in Public Organizations

Abstract

Trust has been acknowledged as a valuable managerial resource within organizations. Working as a lubricant of organizational functioning, trust reduces opportunistic behaviours while it increases voluntary compliance to organizational norms and rules as well as enhancing individual and organizational performance. Considering the importance of trust, it is worthwhile to explore what factors may help build trust within organizations. This research investigates whether perceptions of several human resource management (HRM) practices are associated with trust in government organizations. According to social exchange theory, HRM practices signal management's commitment to employees which in turn leads to greater trust in the organization. Using data from an employee survey conducted for the Georgia Department of Transportation in 2007, this research tests how employee perceptions of HRM practices are related to trust in three distinct levels of management in a large department of state government: trust in department leadership, trust in one's leadership team, and trust in one's supervisor. Binary logit analyses suggest that perceptions of HRM practices focusing on autonomy, compensation, communication, performance appraisal, and career development are associated with trust in public organizations. According to the result, those practices present variation in their leverage on trust in leadership at different levels.     

Reducing Organizational Politics in Performance Appraisal: The Role of Coaching Leaders for Age‐Diverse Employees

We examined whether a supervisor's coaching leadership style predicts the perception of organizational politics in performance appraisal (OPPA) reported by the collaborators. Additionally, we drew on social cognition and motivational life‐span development theories to hypothesize age‐related differences in perceived OPPA and its link with the coaching leadership style. Using hierarchical linear modeling (HLM) on a sample of 576 employees and 112 leaders, we found that coaching leaders are perceived as less manipulative in their performance ratings, especially by older employees. This article includes a discussion of the implications these results have for performance management of an age‐diverse workforce. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

The influence of authentic leadership behaviors on trust and work outcomes of health care staff

A key element of a healthy work environment is trust: trust between staff and their leaders. Authentic leadership is proposed as the core of effective leadership needed to build trust because of its clear focus on the positive role modeling of honesty, integrity, and high ethical standards in the development of leader‐follower relationships. A model linking authentic leadership behaviors with trust in management, perceptions of supportive groups and work outcomes (including voice or speaking‐up behavior, self‐rated job performance, and burnout) using secondary analysis procedures was examined. The hypothesized model was tested using structural equation modeling in two samples of health care employees from a western Canadian cancer care agency: clinical care providers including nurses, pharmacists, physicians, and other professionals (N = 147) and nonclinical employees including administrative, support, and research staff (N = 188). Findings suggest that supportive leader behavior and trust in management are necessary for staff to be willing to voice concerns and offer suggestions to improve the workplace and patient care.     

Health Care Educators: New Directions in Leadership Development

Fortune 500 companies have a competitive advantage in leadership development, whereas health care has lagged far behind. Physician leadership development, in particular, is a game changer for a closed staff, group practice that relies on a pipeline of physician leaders—such as the Cleveland Clinic. To address this leadership development gap in health care, the Cleveland Clinic Academy (CCA) was established in 2006. The academy is predicated on developing health care leaders with specific emphasis on physician leadership education using a competency‐based curriculum with value‐added components, including continuing medical education (CME) and master's of business administration (MBA) transfer credits. In the pioneering spirit of Dr. F. Mason Sones, the novel curriculum includes didactic learning, experiential immersion, and executive coaching, designed to promote physician career development, leadership potential, productivity and job satisfaction, and business acumen. The unique programs—54 stand‐alone courses, and customized programs such as Leading in Health Care, Staff Leadership Rotation, Samson Global Leadership Academy, Healthcare Finance and Accounting, and others—have affected individuals and patient care by reaching over 6,000 health care providers, including physicians from Cleveland Clinic, Bulgaria, France, Ireland, Japan, Qatar, UAE, India, Belgium, Saudi Arabia, Nigeria, Turkey, Dominican Republic, and throughout the United States. CCA provides a new direction in leadership development with an integrated competency‐based curriculum for physicians, nurses, and administrators.     

Signaling by an informed service provider

We study a service provider, who, at the time of offering a contract, is better informed than the potential client. A service provider that is hired to increase the client's chance of a gain, an “enhancer,” may be better informed of whether the client has a big or small opportunity. A service provider that is hired to reduce the client's chance of a loss, a “problem solver,” may be better informed of whether the client has a big or small problem. We show that an enhancer predominantly offers a contingent contract, while a problem solver predominantly offers a flat fee due to their signaling incentives. This explains the differences in real‐world contracts and also provides a novel explanation for the existence of low‐powered incentive contracts. We evaluate the policy intervention that limits the contingent part of the service providers' contracts.     

Helping at NASA: Guidelines for using process consultation to develop impactful research

Management research has long been criticized for its perceived lack of relevance or impact beyond academia. How can we, as management scholars, create research that is more relevant and impactful? I argue that Edgar Schein's process consultation approach can be part of the answer. Process consultation's ultimate aim is to help client organizations. Key aspects of what is now recognized as engaged scholarship were fundamental to process consultation even before engaged scholarship was part of the management vocabulary. Based on my engagement process with the National Aeronautics and Space Administration since 2013, I argue that trust can fruitfully be seen as an outcome and an enabler of productive long-term helping relationships and of engaged scholarship; that what I call pragmatic bricolage is important in terms of offering help based on the client's needs as they develop at different junctures; and that unexpected dilemmas in such relationships are inevitable, but ways forward can be found by applying key principles of social systems. I conclude by outlining guidelines for impactful research and for disseminating research to wider audiences.     

客户重要性与会计信息可比性 ——来自中国证券市场的经验证据

审计师的执业特征对被审计单位的会计信息质量有一定的影响。以审计师客户重要性为经,以会计信息可比性为纬,运用2005—2014年我国A股上市公司数据实证分析审计师客户重要性与会计信息可比性之间的相关性。实证结果表明：会计师事务所对某一客户的经济依赖越强,该客户的会计信息可比性越差;同样地,签字注册会计师的客户重要性与会计信息可比性呈现显著负向关系;并且,会计师事务所和签字注册会计师的客户重要性在对会计信息可比性的作用过程中存在互补关系。     

浅谈教练员的指导能力

教练员的指导行为是教练与运动员之间的心理沟通,是在训练和比赛、实现目标关系中的表现形式。团队的教练员,要领导好全体运动员内部的团结,全队上下能求同存异,相互理解和支持,心理上相容,是决定一个团队凝聚力和战斗力的关键因素。因此,作为教练员必须全面地发展运动员身体机能,提高运动员的专项运动技术水平,并使运动员心悦诚服地去接受教练员的领导,对其要求与指令认真地执行,这是运动员或团队实现目标的保证。     

Development and application of the Leadership Archetype Questionnaire

The leadership assessment questionnaire (LAQ) is a 360 degree survey instrument designed to help organizational leaders identify their own style of leadership and formulate appropriate development objectives. It is designed to provide avenues for development of an executive team in which multiple leadership archetypes are represented. The LAQ is based on eight leadership archetypes – strategist, change-catalyst, transactor, builder, innovator, processor, coach, and communicator. These archetypes are representations of ways of leading in a complex organizational environment. In this article, we discuss the development, design, and psychometric analysis of the LAQ. We detail the conceptual foundations of the questionnaire and the psychometric methods used to confirm the validity and reliability of the instrument. We conclude with avenues for future research.     

Medium-sized charities and their advertising agencies: An exploratory investigation

Respondents in 103 medium-sized charities completed a mail questionnaire designed to explore the nature of the relationships between these charities and their advertising agencies. It emerged that some, but not all, of the factors known to influence interactions between agencies and their commercial clients were equally relevant within the charity sector. Variables crucial to charity clients' levels of satisfaction with their advertising agencies included agency provision of functional assistance with media planning and the creative design of advertisements, trust and an agency's willingness to act as a member of its client's team, and the ability to generate new ideas. Additionally, an agency's experience of work within the charity sector and its empathy with charitable aims, ideals and philosophies were key determinants of satisfaction ratings. Assistance with market research and public relations and an agency's ability to offer extensive ancillary services did not appear to exert significant influence.     

On the Role of Receivables in Managing Salesforce Incentives

ABSTRACT

Despite the obvious problems associated with collections, firms routinely sell on credit. Conventional wisdom suggests offering credit is a necessary evil when dealing with insistent cash-constrained customers. This paper provides a more positive view of trade credit. We find that offering credit can enhance the efficiency of incentive contracts with sales personnel. In effect, with a credit sale, a client gets a second chance to generate enough cash. The client's second chance gives the sales agent another opportunity to demonstrate his past diligence to the firm. Moreover, to limit the risk associated with the fact that even a high-quality client may fail to eventually come up with funds, the firm relies on the accrual system. In particular, the agent's (discretionary and early) choice of the bad debt allowance conveys his private information regarding client quality; the payments associated with subsequent collections/default keep such reporting in check.     

The mediating effects of cognition-based trust and affect-based trust in transformational leadership's dual processes: evidence from China

In this study, we proposed and tested a dual process model in which cognition-based trust and affect-based trust mediate the relationships between transformational leadership and followers' task performance and job satisfaction. Data were collected from 175 sales and service employees and their supervisors in two private companies located in Southeast China. The results show that cognition-based trust mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and followers' task performance, while affect-based trust mediates the relationship between transformational leadership and followers' job satisfaction. Implications for the theory and practice of leadership are then discussed.     

R&D Outsourcing and the Effectiveness of Intangible Investments: Is Proprietary Core Knowledge Walking out of the Door?

Intangible relationship‐specific investments can be double‐edged swords, as they facilitate not only the governance of business relationships but also undesired knowledge transfers. Building on transaction costs theory and the relational view of alliances, we analyse the effectiveness of these investments in R&D outsourcing agreements from the viewpoint of the client. We argue that, when outsourcing to business firms, the safeguards adopted by the clients to prevent spillovers may reduce the effectiveness of the supplier's specialized investments. Using original survey data from 170 European and US technology‐intensive firms, we find that the contribution of these investments to client performance decreases the more a client's core knowledge is required to perform the service, except when outsourcing to non‐profits. This suggests that as the appropriability hazards associated with outsourcing to business firms rise, the client is able to capture less value from the supplier's relationship‐specific investments.