Sunk costs and travel cancellation: Focusing on temporal cost

Tourism products differ from ordinary retail products in terms of the spatial and temporal separation between the purchase and experiencing the product. Despite its importance, temporal separation has not drawn much attention in tourism research. The main objective of this study is to understand the effects of temporal sunk costs on potential travelers' cancellation intentions, in addition to monetary sunk costs. The results of this study suggested the possibility that temporal costs can be converted into monetary costs, but the conversion relationship may not be linear. This study also indicated that travelers' intentions to cancel a travel product decreased as the temporal and monetary sunk costs increased. Further, prior experience moderated the relationship when temporal sunk costs were involved, suggesting that repeat visitors' intentions to cancel their reservations are more influenced by temporal sunk costs than first-time visitors. Further discussion and implications are provided in the main body of this paper.     

The impact of restorative destination environments on tourists' well-being and environmentally responsible behavior: A Reasonable Person Model

Tourist destinations play an important role in facilitating restoration and recovery from stress and mental fatigue. Building upon the Reasonable Person Model, this study tested the causal relationships between three antecedent constructs, i.e., perceived destination restorative qualities (PDRQs), tourist hedonic well-being, tourist eudaemonic well-being, and one consequent construct, i.e., environmentally responsible behavior (ERB). It also assessed the biased effect of perceived crowding through multi-group analysis. A total of 427 valid questionnaires were collected. Results showed that PDRQs exert positive effects on tourist hedonic and eudaemonic well-being as well as ERB. Moreover, tourist eudaemonic well-being exerts a positive effect on ERB and partially mediates the relationship between PDRQs and ERB. This study also revealed that perceived crowding plays a moderating role in the relationship between PDRQs and ERB. Findings enrich the extant knowledge on restorative tourist destination and human-nature relationships and provide implications for destination management and environmental protection.     

Role of trust,emotions and event attachment on residents' attitudes toward tourism

This study examines the effects of residents' trust in government and their emotions toward an event on their perceptions of potential impacts and their support. This study also examines the moderating role of event attachment on the strength of relationships between residents' trust in government and their impacts perceptions, emotional responses, and as well as their support based on social exchange theory and cognitive appraisal theory. Findings clearly indicate that residents' support is a function of both cognitive and affective assessment of perceived impacts. Trust in government influences directly residents' support and indirectly through perceived impacts and experienced emotions toward an event. Findings further suggest that level of event attachment moderates the effects of trust on residents’ perceptions of impacts, their emotions, as well as on their support.     

Explaining viewer affect with imagery diagnosis model

Understanding the emotions of the photo audience or Viewer Affect is essential because marketers want to elicit specific responses with photos. Nevertheless, the relationship between Viewer Affect and tourists' behavioral intentions is still unclear. This research investigated Viewer Affect with association strengths and association valences of destination photos and statements and developed the Imagery Diagnosis Model as a new approach to synthesize findings. The Imagery Diagnosis Model recommends leveraging Treasures, developing Hidden Gems, ignoring Traps, and proceeding cautiously with Roadblocks. Furthermore, this research used the Destination Content Model to test the impact of Viewer Affect on travelers' behavioral intentions. Our findings suggest that Destination Affect positively influences willingness to visit, recommend, and pay. Destination marketers evoke Destination Affect with text or photos but use text to change Destination Image. This research collected 796 online responses from four countries and used the structural equation modeling to confirm the Destination Content Model.     

An Empirical Study of an Online Travel Purchase Intention Model

This study empirically tests a structural model of factors affecting consumers' online purchase intentions for travel products. The findings indicate that information quality, service quality, and system quality are valid measurements to evaluate the quality of travel-oriented website designs. In terms of travelers' perceptions, convenience, value, and merchandise options are three effective measurements of travelers' attitudes toward purchasing travel products online. Quality of travel website design, travelers' attitudes, and customers' satisfaction demonstrate significant influence on travelers' purchase intentions. Travelers' attitudes and customers' satisfaction also serve as strong mediators for the links between quality of travel website design and purchase intentions. Future research can capitalize on this study as a basis to formulate other models or to create a new model to test tactics that can increase travelers' repurchase intentions and strengthening consumers' e-loyalty.     

A Path Analytic Model of Visitation Intention Involving Information Sources,Socio-Psychological Motivations,and Destination Image

Abstract

This study develops and tests a model to examine the organization of informational, motivational, and mental constructs on visitation intention in a path analytic framework. The findings indicated that variety (amount) and type of information sources used and socio-psychological travel motivations determine travelers' perceptual/cognitive evaluations that, in turn, form their affection (feelings) about tourist destinations. A traveler's intent to visit, then, is determined by a combination of perceptual/cognitive and affective evaluations, information sources used, and travel motivations. However, destination image (cognition and affect) appeared to mediate the relationship between visitation intention and stimuli (information sources) and consumer factors (socio-psychological travel motivations). Theoretical and practical implications of the study are discussed and future research areas are suggested to better understand travelers' destination selection process.     

Spatial and human crowdedness,time pressure,and Chinese traveler word-of-mouth behaviors for Korean restaurants

This study aimed to examine the perceived crowdedness (Human, Spatial), emotions, customer satisfaction, and WOM intentions relationships while visiting a crowded restaurant in Korea. Additionally, it estimated the potential moderating role of perceived time pressure on the proposed structural model. The obtained cross-sectional survey data was evaluated and validated utilizing a systematic analysis process. The results indicated both significant and insignificant relationships of spatial crowdedness and human crowdedness to generate positive and negative emotions. It also determines the critical role of perceived time pressure in moderating the relationship between satisfaction and WOM intentions. The implications for marketing managers and future research directions in restaurants were also discussed.     

Travelers' switching behavior in the airline industry from the perspective of the push-pull-mooring framework

We tested the applicability of the push-pull-mooring (PPM) migration theory to travelers' airline selection in order to clarify their switching behavior. Based on the extensive review of the literature and open-ended survey, we identified the constituents of four push, three pull, and four mooring factors. A field survey was conducted at an international airport in South Korea, and a total of 529 complete responses were used for data analysis. Our results showed that the PPM model comprising the second-order factor structure provided an acceptable representation of the observed variables in a comparison with the first-order construct model. Results of the structural analysis also indicated that all PPM categories directly affected switching intention. In addition, mooring dimension had a significant moderating effect on the relationship between pull category and switching intention. However, no moderating effect of mooring factor on the relationship between push factor and switching intention was found.     

Visualizing theme park visitors’ emotions using social media analytics and geospatial analytics

Despite the popular use of social media analytics to scrutinize customer emotions, less scholarly efforts have been invested in visualizing theme park visitors' emotions. Employing the convergence of social media analytics and geospatial analytics, this paper visualized cohesive places where Disneyland visitors express distinct types of emotion in social media messages. Among 226,946 collected tweets, this study used 19,809 tweets containing one or more emotion words listed in Russell's Circumplex Model of Affect. Text mining analysis and GIS-based exploratory spatial data analysis showed that tweets reflecting each quadrant of emotions have considerable spatial variations and different topics related to visitor emotions. The research approach enabled displaying particular spots in theme park zones and areas of riding attractions where emotions of each quadrant are significantly clustered. This study highlights methodological implications of visualizing spatial patterns of visitors' emotions and provides practitioners with a useful guide to develop routes evoking pleasant emotions.     

Road Travelers' Motivations and Loyalty: Train Versus Bus Services

ABSTRACT

Railroad and highway travel may differ not only in terms of their nature but also in terms of their appeal to travelers. Travelers may have different motivations to use either transportation mode in either inbound or outbound directions. Travelers may also demand different services or service traits of the provider in order to gain satisfaction in the short-term and/or become loyal customers in the long-term. This study uses a 2?×?2 design to compare train and a bus service between two cities 250 km apart in a country where these two means of transportation are equally essential. The study also compares the outbound and inbound routes in order to acknowledge additional differences in both the travelers' motivations and the customers' loyalty formation. The results show that travelers' motivations for choosing train or bus transportation differ based on whether they are leaving from or returning to the city that was the original point of departure. They also show that customers' long-term relationships with the provider significantly differ according to means of transportation and routes used. Characteristically, customers in the studied sample prefer train transport to leave and bus to return based on their idiosyncratic motivations of seeking value or money savings and their expectations of mutual loyalty. This research suggests practical consequences both for understanding travelers' motivations and customer loyalty formation and for managing policies regarding train and bus services competing for specific segments of travelers.     

You can't hold the tide with a broom: Cryptocurrency payments and tourism in South Korea and China

Cryptocurrencies are modifying the very nature of how travelers use and manage payment systems. Bearing in mind that cryptocurrencies in tourism and hospitality are solving the issue of isolation of money and liquidity, this study explored travelers' adoption of cryptocurrency payments in the South Korea and China context. The originality of the present study lies on introducing risk, security, and attitude variables into the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) model. We found that perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and security are antecedents of attitude, while attitude, performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and facilitating conditions have significant effect on intention to use cryptocurrency payments in tourism. We also outline the significant moderating effect of age and gender on travelers' adoption of cryptocurrency payments. This study can help policy makers to understand the utility of cryptocurrency payments in tourism.     

Perceived crowding and festival experience: The moderating effect of visitor-to-visitor interaction

The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of two types of perceived crowding (spatial crowding and human crowding) on festival experience as well as how the interactions among visitors moderate the relationship by introducing the variable ‘visitor-to-visitor interaction’. To this end, taking Chinese local cultural festivals as the research object, empirical tests with regression analysis are conducted on 555 questionnaires concerning people's festival experience and perception of spatial crowding and human crowding. The results reveal an inverted U-shaped relationship between perceived human crowding and festival experience, whereas perceived spatial crowding consistently negatively affects the festival experience. Furthermore, the moderating effect of interactions among visitors is confirmed: the quality of interaction has different moderating effects on the relationship between different types of crowding perception and festival experience, and the quantity of interaction positively moderates the relationship between perceived spatial crowding and festival experience.     

Are other customer perceptions important at casino table games? Their impact on emotional responses and word-of-mouth by gender

This study examined (1) the effects of three types of other customer perceptions on emotional responses, (2) the causal relationships between emotional responses and word-of-mouth, and (3) the moderating role of gender. The data were collected from 216 table game players in the United States. The results indicated that similarity and physical appearance had significant effects on positive emotion, while physical appearance and suitable behavior had significant influences on negative emotion. In addition, positive and negative emotions help to form word-of-mouth. Lastly, this study found that gender has a key moderating function in the relationship between negative emotion and word-of-mouth.     

The Antecedents and Consequences of Travelers' Need for Uniqueness: An Empirical Study of Restaurant Experiences

Dining out at a restaurant is one of the most important parts of travelers' tourism experience. The purpose of this research was to examine the antecedents and consequences of travelers' need for uniqueness (CNFU) in their restaurant experiences. Based on a literature review, three theoretical antecedents (perceived firm innovativeness (PFI), perceived firm uniqueness, and brand prestige) and three theoretical consequences (utilitarian value, hedonic value, and behavioral intentions) were proposed. During this process, it was theorized that consumers' uniqueness-seeking behaviors can be strengthened and/or weakened by three psychological moderators: attention to social comparison information (ATSCI), face consciousness, and materialism. By integrating the theoretical arguments, a structural model was proposed. The proposed model was tested using data collected from 379 travelers who had dined out at a luxury restaurant in the past three months. According to the data analysis results, PFI, perceived firm uniqueness, and brand prestige were all confirmed to be important factors in enhancing CNFU. Furthermore, it was determined that CNFU bears a positive impact on behavioral intentions, an impact that is mediated by perceived value. Lastly, the moderating roles of ATSCI and materialism were found to be significant. In the latter part of this research, managerial implications derived from the data analysis results are discussed.     

Reputation,subjective well-being,and environmental responsibility: the role of satisfaction and identification

Based on signaling theory, this study investigates how the perceived reputation of a destination impacts the environmentally responsible behavior (ERB) and subjective well-being (SWB) of tourists through satisfaction and identification with a destination, respectively. The findings support the proposed behavioral model. A total of 539 valid questionnaires were obtained from tourists to a natural ecology and historical culture destination in China and analyzed. The results show that destination reputation has a direct impact on tourists' satisfaction and identification with the destination. Satisfaction and identification with the destination both partially mediate the effect of perceived destination reputation on tourists' ERB and SWB. Findings suggest that enhancing perceptions of a destination's reputation is an important step in increasing tourists' SWB and strengthening their engagement in ERB. Discussion of the findings, research implications, and future research directions are provided.     

The effect of physical environment on passenger delight and satisfaction: Moderating effect of national identity

This study aims to examine the influence of an international airport's physical environment on passengers' delight and satisfaction. This study also aims to assess the moderating role of national identity on the relationship between physical environment and passengers' delight and satisfaction. A convenient sampling technique was used to select the sample. A total of 271 questionnaires distributed at Kuala Lumpur International Airport, Malaysia were used for data analysis. The result from the structural analysis suggests that physical environment in an international airport influences passengers' delight and satisfaction. Moreover, national identity portrayed in airport moderates the relationships between physical environment, passengers' delight and satisfaction. Overall, findings of this study extends the understanding of physical environment, passengers' delight and satisfaction and national identity in the context of an international airport and offer implications for international airport authorities. Discussions and implications for airport practitioners, limitations, and suggestions for future research are also provided.     

The influence of place attachment on the relationship between destination attractiveness and environmentally responsible behavior for island tourism in Penghu,Taiwan

This study examines the causal relationships between place attachment, destination attractiveness and environmentally responsible behavior (ERB), and the mediating effect of place attachment. Four hundred and thirteen tourists were surveyed who had visited the Penghu islands, Taiwan. Structural Equation Modeling was used to determine the relationships among the variables and the mediating effects. Results show that the emotions and feelings (place attachment), which tourists have for Penghu, are positively associated with stronger ERB; the extent of attractiveness of island tourism as perceived by tourists is also positively associated with stronger ERB. A higher level of tourists’ destination attractiveness in regard to island tourism is associated with stronger place attachment; place attachment was found to exert a significant effect in mediating the relationship between destination attractiveness and ERB. The study shows that when island tourists are attracted by and are attached to the destination, they are more likely to exhibit ERB. The study pioneers the integration of all three factors in a sustainable tourism behavior model designed for tourists who stay one night or more at a destination, and tests the hypotheses for the first time in an Asian destination. Management implications and recommendations for the sustainable development of Penghu islands tourism are provided.     

Online Shopping of Travel Products: A Study of Influence of Each Dimension of travelers' Attitudes and the Impact of travelers' Online Shopping Experiences on Their Purchase Intentions

This study examines the impact of three attributes (perception of convenience, perception of merchandise options, and perception of value) on travelers' attitudes toward different online agencies online shopping for travel products and the impact of online shopping experiences on their online purchase intentions. The collected data arises from an Internet survey of registered members of an online travel service company that caters to leisure travelers. The study finds that perceptions of convenience and value are two valid dimensions that measure travelers' attitudes. Findings also confirm that those two attitudes' attributes and travelers' online shopping experiences exert significant influence on their online purchase intentions. Travelers have a more positive attitude toward travel portal websites than toward companies' branded websites in terms of perception of convenience, perception of merchandise options, and perception of value.     

The Impact of Brand Relationship and Attributions on Passenger Response to Service Failure

It is important for service companies to develop and maintain consistent and stable consumer loyalty. Although consumer brand relationship and attributions have been applied to various service industries, they have not been investigated in the airline industry where passenger emotions are considered critical. This study addresses the consequences of brand relationship quality, the mediating influence of emotions, and the moderating role of switching costs through structural equation modeling of data collected from passengers who had experienced flight delay. The results suggest that (1) airline relationship with passengers is an important and valuable asset, especially in the case of stability attributions, (2) negative emotions play a partial or full mediator role in the causal relationship between attributions and behavioral intentions, and (3) minimizing negative emotions is more effective than relying on switching costs for behavioral intentions. It can be concluded that the airline industry should try to manage passenger emotions more appropriately since passengers have an emotional attachment to their brands and passengers' negative emotions can be influential to repurchase intentions when service failures occur.     

The effect of destination social responsibility on tourist environmentally responsible behavior: Compared analysis of first-time and repeat tourists

Utilizing a Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework, this study presents and examines an integrated model that investigates consumption emotions (positive and negative) and tourist-destination identification as mediating variables between perceived destination social responsibility and the environmentally responsible behavior of Chinese tourists (n = 539). Previous research has suggested that prior experience with a service can impact the relationships between constructs; as such, this study also investigates the potential moderating impact of visitation frequency on the proposed model. Findings indicate that consumption emotions (positive and negative) and tourist-destination identification do mediate the effect of perceived destination social responsibility and environmentally responsible behavior. Only positive emotions were found to significantly impact tourist-destination identification. A moderating effect for first-time, relative to repeat visitors, was found for some paths between the investigated constructs in the proposed model. Theoretical and managerial implications are discussed, limitations provided, and future research directions suggested.