Adding Value to the Teaching and Learning of Design and Technology

It has been argued that design and technology can be used as a vehicle for teaching science and vice versa. In this paper, we report an investigation into Grade 6 students understandings of concepts embodied in the Systems strand of a technology syllabus as they grappled with a unit of work in technology for the first time. The unit of work involved students in the design and construction of simple systems, followed by experiences with more complex systems. Qualitative research methods were used to investigate the activities of the students as they engaged in the design and technology learning experiences for eight weeks. Data sources included student and teacher interviews, video and audio recordings of whole class and small group interactions, students notes, drawings and diagrams, and researchers field notes and reflections. Changes in students ability to identify the individual components and analyse how the components worked together in systems, and evidence of students use of scientific understandings for explanations, were noted as the unit of work progressed. An improvement was observed in students abilities to describe relationships between inputs, processes and outputs, and outline sequences of cause and effect. The technology and science appeared to be complementary as they developed technology specific and action-oriented technology and science language, which may be evidence of the presence of a community of learners. Recommendations are proposed for enhancing the value of both design and technology and science if both subjects are taught together as part of an integrated program in primary schools.     

Science,technology and engineering: Building lifelong bridges

In response to what is envisaged as a crisis in scientific and technological literacy, various organizations and governmental agencies have put forward recommendations for enriching students' science and technology experiences in formal and informal learning environments. This paper examines one such organization — the Professional Engineers Ontario — and their Innovators in the School initiative. Through this student outreach programme, engineers, scientists and technologists volunteer their time to visit elementary and secondary level students, encouraging them to pursue science, technology and engineering careers. In particular, this research identifies issues that the Innovators (interestingly, over half are women) consider to be important for promoting a positive image of science to young people. First, the paper considers what an image of science might potentially be. Second, it addresses the question of how Innovators and other educators (teachers, policy-makers, curriculum planning teams) might promote this positive image in the classroom and school.     

Perception of ‘economic reality’ with Design and Technology

Conclusion It has been argued that Design and Technology teachers would be helped by clear distinction between the terms, industry, business and economic. This would help to avoid the confusion between particular ways of viewing business (eg. through an economic concept such as profit maximisation;) and the multi-faceted character of the activity under observation. By this reasoning, the economic dimension of Design and Technology resides in the analysis of needs and the evaluation of products according to the value of the resources used up, and the value and distribution of the resources and products created. The link with discussion of value judgements in the subject (eg. Riggs and Conway, 1991) is very clear. So also is the dependence of this analysis on the definition of needs and evaluation and, crucially, the perceived relationship between the two, in learning and classroom practice.     

Problem-solving processes in technology education: A pilot study

This paper reports the preliminary results of a pilot study investigating the nature of problem-solving activity in technology classrooms. The research focuses on the relationship and potential mismatch between teachers' and children's agendas, aims, perceptions and beliefs concerning design and technology activities. A case study of an 11-week project was undertaken with four pupils aged 13. In-depth classroom observation and interviews allowed us to investigate the problem solving used in designing and making a kite, and the pupils' application of the knowledge required. Our analysis charts the influence of the teacher's task structuring and interventions on the children's problem-solving behaviour. The results indicate that the design process is highly complex and not always communicated successfully by teachers. What children typically encounter in design and technology projects are different problems requiring different approaches according to the kind of task and the stage reached in its solution. The popular idea that problem solving in technology denotes a holistic design-and-make process is hence under challenge. Moreover, the assumed access and application of relevant bodies of knowledge from other contexts is highly problematic.     

Discontinuity in transition: Pupils' experience of technology in year 6 and year 7

This paper refers to current work at Goldsmiths University of London (Understanding Technological Approaches, a project funded by the Economic and Social Research Council [research award R-000-23-3643]), in which we have tracked the design & technology project work of pupils from ages 5 to 16. The paper looks particularly at the discontinuity we have identified between the d&t experiences of pupils at the top end of primary schools and the bottom end of secondary schools. The differences between these experiences are explored by looking particularly at data relating to the ways in which teachers interact with pupils, either to direct or support the pupils in their work and at the important role discussion plays in d&t. The paper concludes that there is a critical need for teachers in both sectors to be more aware of each other's aims and priorities in order to plan experiences which will support an individual pupil's progressive development of d&t capability.     

Professional design and primary children

An analysis of the way in which primary age children design, particularly when working with a professional designer, suggests that there are several similarities in approach between the two. This observation is supported by evidence from developmental psychology, which has stressed the crucial role which play performs in developing children's inventiveness and ability to solve problems. Subsequent research focusing on children's designing suggests that this play is fundamental to designing activity, and extends naturally into the more formalised activities of drawing and modelling. Through playing and using narrative language to describe their actions, children are learning to interpret their own mental images. To develop these images and make them more concrete children use their hands in drawing and modelling whilst drawing on their accumulated personal knowledge about the activity of designing, in a similar way to that in which professional designers make use of their own, highly sophisticated skills to bring an idea to concrete fruition. By comparison with some of the rigid models of the design process described in schools, designers and children may have more in common than we realise.     

Technology Education as Solo Activity or Socially Constructed Learning

There is a continuing perception that current educational arrangements for technology education in modern liberal democracies are at odds with its actual delivery in the classroom (Dakers & Doherty 2003). The technè versus poiesis tension (explained later) is one major contributor to this perception. Equally, the practice of transmission versus constructivist pedagogies contributes to the mismatch between policy and practice.This paper will investigate how factors relating to these two contributions affect the delivery of technological education. It will begin by discussing the derivation of the word technology and how its modern incarnation has become not only amorphous, but confusing for technology education, in that the term can be taken to mean production on the one hand or process on the other. It will then explore technology teachers perceptions (and misperceptions) of what constitutes technology education, and discuss why this can lead to confusion. It will further consider how this can affect the pedagogy adopted. It will then examine two pedagogical frameworks which result from teachers perceptions of technology education as either; a process of internalisation of technological skills and functions as representations exclusively within the mind and unique to the individual, thus solo, or; a process of technological skills and functions embedded in sociocultural activity in which cognition is distributed across the internal mind and the external environment. Finally, the paper will offer a framework for the delivery of technology education set within a community of learners paradigm.     

Research on asian cultures and management: Some epistemological issues

This paper highlights the major issues raised in the conference Culture and Management Styles in Southeast Asian countries and discusses the espistomological and methodological problems of doing comparative management research in general as well as in the region.The paper identifies the themes which emerged from the conference discussions as (1) the fundamental rationale for research and the apparent weakness in making it explicit, (2) the questions of epistomology as regards causation, and the (3) more mundane issues faced in conforming to standard research paradigms. These issues are discussed under the following headings: What is to be included, subjects' espoused theory or theory in use, idiographic versus nomothetic approaches, more universal variables, problems of defining culture. The implications and significance of different approaches and disciplines concerning these issues are considered, and guidelines for future research in the area are suggested.Professor Gordon S. Redding is with the Department of Management Studies, University of Hong Kong.     

Tasks in technology

Technology has long been recognised as a task-centred activity, but far too little work has been done to understand the nature of tasks and how they operate as teaching and learning tools. The problems surrounding Attainment Target 1 (AT1) in the national curriculum in England and Wales provide ample evidence of this. This paper explores — both in principle and through empirical research data — two central features of tasks ie pupil autonomy/teacher control and the role of the client or user of the end product. Very contrasting views about tasks emerge from the four key stages.     

Constructing design and technology an early years perspective

This paper argues that a pedagogic model grounded in both constructivist and Vygotskyian theory can be consistently applied throughout Design and Technology education. The constructivist model outlined, is borrowed from the work of Rosalind Driver in Science education and applies a perspective grounded in Piaget and moderated by Ausubel. This perspective involves a clear recognition that: The most important single factor influencing learning is what the learner already knows. This argument is extended further to cover the acquisition of scientific, design and technological capabilities. The paper focuses on how effective learning is achieved when new understandings are related to appropriate existing concepts and cognitive structures. Vygotsky's conception of the zone of proximal development is utilised to show how cognitive functions that have not yet matured and which the child is unable to apply independently, can be productively applied, with the assistance of an educator. Child development is, from this perspective, dependent upon existing competencies, knowledge and understandings being challenged and extended with support, it is argued however, that it is essential that the challenges are not so great or irrelevant that the child experiences failure. The consequences of allowing individuals to experience educational failure are widely apparent in the context of science and technology throughout our society. The role of play in the early years is seen as particularly valuable in this context. From this perspective the essential task for the teacher must be to clearly identify the limits of proximal development and to restrict as far as possible their teaching to this zone. The identification of such limits demands an appreciation of progression within the learning context. The paper argues that the structure of the attainment targets within the UK Design and Technology National Curriculum provides teachers with a framework of constructive scaffolding within which children may be given the maximum freedom and autonomy while developing their practical capability in designing and making. This heuristic framework may be lost in the application of the new proposals for Design and Technology.     

What form of modelling?

Conclusion The National Criteria and GCSE CDT: Technology have not kept pace with the progress of language, whereas the APU and the Design and Technology Working Group have an understanding, with the implications, of modelling 2, albeit fifteen years after the Open University's Technology Foundation Course for teachers. The Consultation Report Group has had the benefit of the insight given by the APU and the Design and Technology Working Group, but, it has not seen the probity and necessity of modelling 2. A summary of these documents in this five year period is presented in Table 2. It shows succinctly how the words model and modelling, from Table 1, have been used or implied.In conclusion, it would appear that through the Consultation Report no gain has been made from the advances achieved by the APU and the Design and Technology Working Group. The Consultation Report has restored a quasi status quo that does not challenge Design and Technology as would have the Final Report regarding modelling 2. If its perception of modelling 2 had been adopted by the National Curriculum Council the Final Report's modelling 2 philosophy would have challenged the GCSE Technology examinations and any Technology faculty who work on an understanding of modelling as an end-in-itself product.As a consequence of this weakening by the National Curriculum Council, there is the need to return to the philosophy of the APU and the Design and Technology Working Group in order to interpret the imminent Technology Statutory Orders. The non-statutory examples should be ignored, as an understanding of modelling 2 philosophy will give valid examples and contexts. Finally, an understanding of modelling 2 philosophy will help cross-curricular developments through the interaction of different aspects of modelling 2 within the curriculum.     

The needs of Japanese industry and engineering education

Japan experienced a miraculous reconstruction after the second world war partly due to the far-sighted support of the victors, especially the United States, and China, who did not divide the country or demand reparations, and partly due to the unique inherent qualities of the Japanese people.The Japanese race has developed its national identity from a combination of the country's location, climate and the circumstances of its some 1000 year history. As a result the people of Japan are truly a single race, for the most part uniform in experience, culture and language with a strong domestic orientation. From an educational viewpoint, the Japanese are historically good learners. However, they are traditionally bad when it comes to generating new ideas by applying theory for creative purposes.A simple process of (1) follow, (2) catch up and (3) equal or surpass describes the development of the high-tech industry in Japan. This process has made the most of the Japanese people's ability to absorb information as well as their single-minded determination to achieve goals and their propensity for concentrated effort. As the automobile and semi-conductor industries illustrate, the Japanese have unequalled expertise when it comes to adopting technology from advanced industrial nations overseas, perfecting it and making it their own.The challenge for the Japanese people, now that the catch-up process is all but completed, is to continue their progress by generating their own innovative ideas. In addition, the Japanese must develop a more global orientation and consider the needs of foreign markets in new product development. This evolution must take place in an atmosphere of international sharing, co-operation and partnership.In terms of education, the traditional good learner with a domestic orientation must be taught how to be a good original thinker with an international viewpoint.The engineering system in Japan has been placed against this background and is examined from both an historic and a futuristic perspective.     

Economics Research at the FTC: Information,Retrospectives, and Retailing

Individual Federal Trade Commission (FTC) cases invariably raise broad questions about consumers, markets, and effective enforcement policy. Recent consumer protection cases raise questions about information regulation. Horizontal merger enforcement has recently focused on retrospective analysis of mergers and the role of the retail sector in predicting the effects of manufacturer mergers. In this paper, we describe research by the FTCs Bureau of Economics that addresses these three areas. We argue that such research is well worth the agencys relatively small resource investment because it demonstrably contributes to more thoughtful policy analysis and better policy outcomes.     

The conceptual understanding of scientific principles in Home Economics

This paper stresses the importance of scientific understanding as part of Home Economics courses and describes how personal misconceptions can interfere with this understanding. It examines the misconceptions held by third level undergraduate students of a basic scientific principle used in the cooking of food, that of boiling, and compares these misconceptions with those of second level pupils commencing their formal education in science. Little difference is reported between the two groups in terms of the misconceptions held. The effectiveness of a teaching methodology based on a constructivist view of knowledge, that of cognitive conflict, in changing misconceptions is reported.     

Strategic turnarounds in organizations: An analysis of regulatory change

The article analyses major strategic shifts in eight regulatory agencies in the United States. The study underlines the influences of multiple factors in these strategic shifts and shows the usefulness of studying organizations' strategy-making cycles longitudinally. The relevant information on the eight regulatory agencies are analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively, paying attention to organization — environment interactions over time. Thirty strategic turnarounds in the eight agencies seemed to follow a consistent pattern, and it is concluded that there is a sequential order of progression from defensive to growth through rational strategies.The author is a Professor in the Faculty of Administration, University of New Brunswick.     

Brand Imitation: Do the Chinese Have Different Views?

Trademark infringement is a big problem for international brands in Asia, especially among the three Chinese societies — the PRC, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. An exploratory study of the perceptions and attitudes of these consumers regarding their acceptability and willingness to purchase brands which imitate the look of multinational brands was carried out. The results showed the Hong Kong Chinese to be more aware and loyal to multinational brands. The PRC nationals and Taiwanese generally had low awareness of which brands were originals and which were imitators. All respondents thought the manufacture of imitator brands to be unethical, but not the purchase of such brands. The major predictor of choosing an imitator brand was the respondent's ability to identify the original brand. The results from this study suggest marketers should educate their new consumers that they are the original brand or market leader in their product category.     

Learning technology through a process approach: The implementation of curriculum innovation through the pragmatic interventions of the teacher

The paper focuses on the practice of technology education in eight secondary schools in the north east of England. It illustrates that whilst Technology has been defined in terms of process the attempts to teach technological understanding solely through a similar model may not be the most effective method. In their quest for achievement for their pupils, teachers are adept at circumventing educational ideals by devising strategies and methodologies (in most cases subconsciously) which produce end results that satisfy their pupils, and also examination bodies, but may negate more reflective objectives. These approaches are not merely an attempt at obtaining easily gained acclaim but may be symptomatic of deeper rooted beliefs and ideals. The conclusions are based on a survey of published work as well as on the results of ethnographic research which appraised the practice of a sample of teachers in their handling of key points in this process approach.     

Designing the future? Technology,values and choice

There is a widespread recognition of the desirability of broadening the scope of technology education with the objective of a form of technological literacy which would embrace social relations as well as technique. In 1990, Technology was introduced as a compulsory element of general education in England and Wales. Initially the curriculum gave equal weight both to the context as well as the content of technological activity, but subsequent revisions point the way back to an emphasis on technique and a narrower view of the role of the designer. In some respects, this simplifies the task of the technology teacher, and it might also be said to reflect the everyday realities of much technological activity. It is, however, an essentially conservative approach which tends to reinforce and legitimise attitudes which place a high value on technical performance while consigning the purposes and outcomes of technological activity to the shadows. It is argued that, for the sake of the future, it is essential that values in design and technology are brought up to the light. Technology teachers should take some responsibility for this, but cannot be expected to shoulder the whole burden.     

The language component in technological capability: Lessons from architecture

The paper argues that the ability to use language, particularly spoken language, is central to technological capability. An understanding of its role depends on acknowledging design and technology as work with symbols, and is assisted by seeing the product of design as a virtual artefact. Language is one of the symbol systems used to construct and communicate this artefact. It articulates aspects of the design that cannot be represented graphically, as well as accommodating the interpersonal dimension of the process. Implications for the curriculum are briefly suggested. The argument is supported by evidence from recordings and observations of a problem-solving episode which occurred in a Canadian architects' practice over a few days in the construction phase of a project.     

Reflection on technology in education

Reflection has become a buzzword in the educational profession. Its meaning, however, frequently remains vague. In this paper the meaning of reflection for technology education is elaborated on three levels. The first is a philosophical and educational level. The idea of Bildung, conceived as the formation of an autonomous personality, becomes a central category for instruction about technology. The second level is the realm of curriculum development and teachers' planning. The reference to Bildung implies that technology education should be based on technological key problems that apply to all members of society. On the third level, the meaning of reflection will be elaborated in the context of a qualitative research approach on teacher thinking in technology education. It resorts to the categories of the curriculum model and is illustrated by a case study on teacher planning in computer education.Dr K.-H. Hansen is a researcher at the Institute for Science Education (IPN) in Kiel. After some years of experience as a technician he studied sociology and graduated in education. He has published in computer education with an emphasis on pedagogical, historical, and social aspects. His research work comprises qualitative and quantitative studies of the educational uses of computers. His current research interests are the conceptual role of technology in integrated science and in STS education.