Resource and Waste Taxation in the Theory of the Firm with Recycling Activities

The management of solid waste has become an urgent problem in nations with a great population density. Accordingly, waste reduction through source reduction and recycling has become increasingly important. Our purpose is to show how prevention, recycling and disposal of waste could be part of a theory of the firm. We first derive efficient production functions from production processes with waste as a by-product. Waste obtained as new scrap can partially be recycled by using additional inputs in order to cut back the purchase of virgin material. Waste not completely recyclable will leave the firm as disposal which also entails cost to the firm. We use the dual cost function approach to develop a theory of the firm under solid residual management.Since the producer does not bear the full cost of disposal, there will be a bias toward virgin materials and away from recycling. The goal of the government is to stimulate the firms to recycle with respect to the preservation of exhaustible resources. An incentive to recycle is a tax on resources or on waste. In order to determine the tax levels the government maximizes welfare subject to the dynamic constraint for decumulation of land fill for waste deposits. This gives the user cost and its time profile for taxing waste disposal or virgin material.In a comparative statics analysis we compare the effect of taxes on waste vs. virgin material on effort to produce in a resource saving manner, on the quantity of recycled material, on output, and on the reduction of waste. Since the impact of environmental regulation on employment is important, our model detects seven effects on labor demand as part of resource conservation policy. We finally carry out a comparative statics analysis of waste intensive firms operating in different market structures. Of interest is the impact of a resource or waste taxation on market volume, on the number of firms, on resource saving effort, and on profit.     

循环经济与区域经济可持续发展的实证研究——以浙江富阳造纸业为例

循环经济是一种建立在物质不断循环利用基础上的经济生产方式和社会生活方式,其关键组成部分是再生资源利用。再生资源利用不但解决了区域经济发展所需的原料来源,而且促进了区域经济的可持续发展。文章通过对富阳造纸业循环经济发展的分析,总结出废纸回收利用产业发展的富阳模式,其成功经验对我国其他区域循环经济发展有着示范作用。     

A research of material input and environmental impact for Chinese economy： 1990-2005

The process of economic activities is on the basis of tremendous material inputs. China has been discharging an enormous amount of waste, giving rise to a wide range of environmental impacts. The method of economy-wide material flow analysis （EW-MFA） is one of the effective tools to examine the flow of materials entering physical economies, and recognize early environmental problems. Relevant researches are still at the early stage in China and most focus on material throughput but are rarely concerned about the utilization of recycling resource and environmental impact. Based on more than 3,000 items of data related, materials entering Chinese economy are classified into three types, and then the characteristics of material input and environmental impact are presented for the years 1990-2005 by using the indicators derived from EW-MFA. The Ratio of Recycled Material （RRM） is added as the new indicator in order to be in accordance with the need of circular economy being promoted in China. Results show that the great changes in the structure of material input cause the continuous increase of industrial solid waste emissions and the bogging down of material productivity. The RRM reveals that the utilization of recycling resources remains at a fairly low level in China. Finally, some weakness of EW-MFA is discussed according to the calculated results.     

循环经济的“3R”原则在城郊生活垃圾领域的运用

循环经济＂3R＂原则包括减量化、再利用和再循环。＂3R＂是循环经济的操作原则,强调要在物质流动的全过程中控制资源消耗和污染产生。随着经济发展和城市化的推进,城市郊区垃圾产生量也在逐年增加,因此必须使循环经济的＂3R＂原则在城郊生活垃圾领域得到充分运用。通过贯彻减物质化第一位的原则,引入市场机制和经济手段,使生活垃圾的收运、处置体系走上循环经济的高端化之路。     

基于MFCA的废弃物回收优先排序方法及应用研究

随着资源环境问题的日益凸显,废弃物回收再利用引起了广泛关注。基于物质流成本会计（MFCA）及物质流转平衡原理,建立了将隐性成本嵌入生产工序流程的废弃物回收优先排序方法。为了验证该方法的实用性及科学性,以A钢铁企业为例进行了案例研究。结果表明：根据各工序环节的隐性成本测算结果可以确立废弃物回收优先次序,该方法能有效促进A钢铁企业环保效益与经济效益协同提升。     

Renewable Resource Use and Nonseparable Amenity Benefits

We incorporate amenity benefits into an overlapping generations model with a renewable resource as a factor of production, source of amenity benefits and store of value. Unlike the conventional renewable resource problems studied under the assumption of additive consumption and amenity benefits, we let amenity benefits affect the utility of consumers in a nonseparable fashion. We examine the role that weights given to consumption and amenities have for harvesting and the resource stock. We characterize dynamics and stability of steady state equilibria with a logistic resource growth function. We demonstrate in parametric and numerical models that the weights given to consumption and amenities in the utility function matter substantially for the steady state equilibrium stock and its stability and dynamics. Both conventional saddle point equilibria and indeterminacy with infinite number of equilibria and saddle-node bifurcation is possible depending on the weights given to consumption and amenities. In addition, we show that for each inefficient equilibrium stock, there is a unique subsidy rate that can move the economy from an inefficient equilibrium to an efficient one. The presence of indeterminacy provides a challenge to resource policies, because the system becomes unpredictable. Therefore, expectations and market psychology may play an important role in resource utilization and provision of amenities.     

On the Second-best Policy of Household's Waste Recycling

This study analyzes the second-best household's waste recycling policy. If we assume the first-best economy with no illegal disposal or transaction costs, then unit pricing, an advance disposal fee and a recycling subsidy are required in order to achieve the social optimum such that both the sum of unit pricing and an advance disposal fee and the sum of unit pricing and a recycling subsidy are equal to the marginal disposal cost. Furthermore, the first-best outcome can also be obtained by a producer take-back requirement system.In the real economy, however, various factors prevent the first-best optimal outcome. In this study we consider two factors, one being the transaction cost associated with a recycling subsidy (or refund) and the other being illegal disposal by the consumer. If a recycling subsidy (or a deposit-refund system) is adopted, a transaction cost associated with it will be generated. Alternatively, if unit pricing is adopted, some of the consumed goods may be disposed of illegally. We show the complete trade-off between unit pricing and a recycling subsidy. In other words, we can not adopt unit pricing and a recycling subsidy simultaneously. As a result, there are three candidates for the second-best policy: unit pricing with an advance disposal fee, a deposit-refund system, and a producer take-back requirement system.Which of these three policies is the second-best policy will depend on the relative magnitude of the price of a recycled good and the marginal transaction cost associated with a recycling subsidy (or the refund in a deposit-refund system). Generally, if the price of a recycled good is positive and the marginal transaction cost is relatively high, unit pricing with an advance disposal fee is the second-best policy. However, where the price of a recycled good is negative and the marginal transaction cost is relatively high, a producer take-back requirement system is the second-best policy. Further, where the marginal transaction cost is relatively low, a deposit-refund system is the second-best policy, regardless of whether the price of a recycled good is positive or negative.     

Differential Provision of Solid Waste Collection Services in the Presence of Heterogeneous Households

A model of household refuse production is presented in which individuals differ in their distaste for the waste stock and the supply of waste collection services is continuous in pick-up frequency. The inclusion of pick-up frequency into household solid waste management analyses has already been shown to have policy implications. In fact, even in the absence of the waste stock externality, a system of uniform consumption taxes and legal (or curbside) disposal and recycling subsidies has been found to be necessary (and sufficient) to induce households to socially optimally allocate their resources when illegal disposal (or simply dumping) incentives exist but a per unit punishment system for dumping is lacking. This policy is here concluded to be no longer feasible; instead, a system of differential consumption taxes and recycling subsidies and uniform legal disposal subsidies is found to be optimal (but possibly nonimplementable). In the presence of heterogeneous households, which are however identifiable on the basis of their relative location to the landfill site, an optimal and implementable policy is then shown to require a differential provision of collection services.     

基于逆向物流的电子企业循环经济模式研究

循环经济以末端废物回收再利用为起步,逐级反馈,进而对社会各个环节产生影响。文章建立的电子企业循环经济模式,以废物资源化再利用为关键环节,设计回收、处置、再利用的逆向物流流程,实现废物资源化,物质循环流动。     

农户参与农业废弃物资源化利用的意愿及其影响因素分析——基于黑、鲁、豫、川4省684户农户的调查数据

农业废弃物资源化利用是防治农业面源污染、改善农业生产环境的有效途径;同时,也是改善农村人居环境,推动生态宜居美丽乡村建设的重要内容。基于黑龙江、山东、河南、四川4省684个样本农户数据,运用多元排序Probit模型分析了农户农业废弃物资源化利用参与意愿及其影响因素,并通过控制相关变量进行了稳健性检验。结果表明,政府监管并不能提高农户参与农业废弃物资源化利用的意愿,而前景预期、政策了解度、农业废弃物资源化补贴、设立固定回收点或与回收企业合作、合作社参与等因素更能提高农户的参与意愿。为此,可以采取发挥非经济预期的作用、构建财政补贴机制、健全农业废弃物资源化回收利用机制、利用合作社平台等措施激发农户参与农业废弃物资源化利用的关键行为动机,提高农户参与农业废弃物资源化利用的意愿,推动农业绿色发展及乡村生态振兴。     

Renewable resource and capital with a joy-of-giving resource bequest motive

In this article we ask whether a privately owned natural renewable resource can be conserved and managed efficiently when households have a joy-of-giving resource bequest motive. We model an overlapping generations economy in which firms have access to a CES production technology combining the natural resource, physical capital and labor. Our results shed light on the interplay between the resource bequest motive and the substitutability/complementarity relationship between capital and the natural resource in the determination of the equilibrium propensity to use the resource. The mere existence of the bequest motive does not guarantee that the resource will be conserved in the long run. When the resource is highly substitutable with capital, the equilibrium actually never exhausts the resource stock whatever the intensity of the bequest motive. When the resource is a poor substitute for capital, the equilibrium preserves the resource only if the taste for bequeathing is strong enough. Be the economy in over-accumulation or in under-accumulation of the natural resource, it always increases aggregate consumption to run the stock of capital at a level lower than the efficiency level.     

Recycling and Waste Diversion Effectiveness: Evidence from Canada

In this paper, we investigate the relationship between recycling policy options and recycling behavior to study the most effective methods of diverting post-consumer waste from landfills. We employ data from a unique, micro-data set collected from households in communities across Ontario, Canada. We estimate the relationships between several commonly recycled materials (newsprint, glass, plastics, aluminum cans, tin cans, cardboard, and toxic chemicals) and individual household characteristics, recycling program attributes, and garbage collection financing methods. We find that user fees on garbage collection have significant impacts on recycling levels for all materials except toxic chemicals, and mandatory recycling programs on particular items have significant effects on recycling for almost all materials. Limits on the amount of garbage that can be placed at the curb, and providing free units under user fee systems, however, generally have a negligible or detrimental impact on recycling.JEL classification: D10, H23, Q28     

Exhaustible resources and secondary materials: A macroeconomic analysis

In this paper we have developed an endogenous growth model to deal with exhaustible resources and secondary materials together, under the assumptions that these two inputs are, or are not, technologically perfect substitutes of each other, in order to compare the results obtained under both hypotheses. We highlight the implication of these two assumptions on the rate of growth of total output and upon the flow of exhaustible resources extracted. There are also some other interesting findings related to the spill-over on welfare of the waste recycling process, and the dynamics of shadow prices of both inputs considered. Finally, some implications on Hotelling's rule also emerge in our analytical framework.     

中国废弃物处理企业发展与城市就业增加探析

废弃物处理和废弃资源回收在一定程度上减轻了城市的环境污染.实证分析表明,废弃物处理企业的发展对城市就业有很大的促进作用.现阶段,中国城市废弃物处理企业的发展还存在着诸如产业化水平不高、市场无序竞争、缺乏资金支持等诸多问题.因此,政府要在健全法律体系、促进产业化进程、加大攻策及科技支持力度等方面作出努力,以保障企业健康快速发展.     

Capital Mobility—Resource Gains or Losses? How,When, and for Whom?

This paper investigates which of the two types of countries—resource‐rich or resource‐poor—gains from capital market integration and capital tax competition. We develop a framework involving vertical linkages through resource‐based inputs as well as international fiscal linkages between the two types of countries. Our analysis shows that capital market integration causes capital flows from resource‐poor to resource‐rich countries and improves global production efficiency. However, such gains accrue only to resource‐poor countries, and capital mobility might even negatively affect resource‐rich countries. Furthermore, we show that resource‐rich countries can exploit the gains when taxes on capital are available.     

农业循环经济发展对策研究——以河南省固始县为例

固始县作为河南省农业经济较为发达、工业经济开始起步的农业大县,依托农产品资源形成了以农产品加工为主导的产业结构,开展涉农循环经济,在河南具有较好的示范意义。在分析固始县农业循环经济发展现状的基础上,遵循循环经济和生态农业理念,以减少资源消耗、降低废物排放、提高资源利用效率为目标,提出了构建固始县农业循环经济体系的理念和模式,从发展构建农业循环经济链条、健全农业循环经济服务体系等几个方面提出了具体的措施。     

循环经济模式下的企业生产组织研究

提出了在循环经济规则下,企业生产责任从产品生产,产品销售和售后服务向着产品的再使用,再制造,回收资源化和最终处置延伸中的产业组织的新结构与新机制。分析评价了产品寿命周期每一事件对环境产生的影响和影响程度。为实现产品寿命周期的环境负面影响最小化,认为企业必须实施清洁生产,在技术、设备和工艺流程上进行创新。为保证企业清洁生产的有效实施,提出企业必须建立ISO14001环境管理体系,在产品生产的组织和程序上落实和执行ISO14001标准,使ISO14001环境管理体系在企业产品寿命周期上为实施清洁生产,节能降耗和保护环境保驾护航。     

木薯燃料乙醇的净能量分析与环境影响评价——基于广西20万吨木薯燃料乙醇项目的分析

基于对广西北海年产20万吨木薯燃料乙醇项目实地调研获得的数据资料,对燃料乙醇项目进行了净能量分析,对其环境影响进行了考察。由于采用的技术工艺先进,燃料乙醇生产的能量多于生产过程的能量消耗,是有效的,但是净能量值并不十分乐观;项目的循环经济运行模式对于保护环境免受污染伤害起到了很好的作用,生产过程中产生的大部分固体废弃物得到了回收利用,避免了对环境的危害。     

On the Dynamics of Recycling and Natural Resources

We study the dynamic impact of recycling through its effect on the production set of the economy and its relationship with natural resources. The contribution of renewable and recyclable resources for sustainability is studied. Although in the short run recycling may alleviate resource scarcity, in the long run it is not enough to compensate for the exhaustibility of non-renewable resources and the possibility of obtaining non-decreasing output paths crucially depends on the extent to which production rests on renewable resources. Furthermore, recycling interacts with natural resource growth, surprisingly not always favoring sustainability. The Production and Recycling Function is a generalization of the traditional production function, providing an integrated view of regular production and recycling and representing the production set of the economy when a recycling technology is available.     

城市典型废弃物循环利用体系建设——日本的实践与启示

日本是循环经济管理理念和发展水平较为领先的国家之一,也是我国发展循环经济的一个重要借鉴和国际合作对象.文章从立法、全流程管理、分类管理和市场机制四个方面,系统而扼要地介绍了日本建设城市典型废弃物循环利用体系的主要做法和成效,包括:逐步推进建立和完善废弃物循环利用法律体系;结合责任分担制和延伸生产者责任制,实施全流程链条式管理;针对性地建立废弃物循环利用体系和处理方法,实现资源效用最大化;政府立法和规划引导,逐步形成以市场机制为主的废弃物循环利用体系.在此基础上,文章有针对性地提出了建立和完善我国城市典型废弃物循环利用体系的若干启示和建议,主要包括:理顺管理体制、完善现有体系、加大薄弱环节工作力度和调动利益相关者积极性四方面.