Gendered key events in the life course: effects on changes in travel mode choice over time

This paper studies changes in travel mode specific trip rates after life course (and accessibility) related key events from a gender perspective. It is theoretically informed by the mobility biographies approach, and by gender/travel studies. The data used is the German Mobility Panel (GMP) 1994 to 2010 in which households and their members are asked three times in three subsequent years to report the trips they made over a week. The changes reported are regressed to key events over the life course, cohort effects and period effects, while sociodemographics and spatial context attributes are controlled. A cluster–robust regression approach is used to account for the non-independent character of panel observations. Significant effects were found for some key events, including the birth of a child, entry into the labour market, and changes in spatial context, accessibility and mobility. Some effects differed distinctly between men and women, suggesting that men and women are differently affected by life course events. However, taken together the associations found, as well as their gender differences are rather limited. Hence, key events over the life course seem to be only loosely associated with travel mode specific trip rates.     

The tourist experience and bonding

This paper sheds light on the gendered meanings of bonding within the tourist experience. Its basis is a survey of young male and female single students, which demonstrates how they value being with, doing and sharing a holiday with their friends. The findings suggest complex gender power relations within tourism. For instance, women significantly more than men need to be together with, talking to and sharing experiences with their friends, and they require more than men this company to feel safe during the day and night. Such gender distinctions are linked to how men and women enact friendships and gender differently and to the geography of women's travel fears, which proposes that women more than men develop mental maps which restrict public movements. This research also suggests that the need for the company of friends is not just about spatiality; singles of both sexes prefer to be with friends when eating out in the enclavic and in heterogeneous tourism spaces. This finding thus proposes that midlife single women's ambivalence towards eating out alone on city breaks and resort holidays is perhaps not so much about womanhood as their age.     

‘Mobility work’: Older adults' experiences using public transportation

This paper contributes to research on public transport accessibility, disabling spaces, and older adult's mobility by highlighting the ‘mobility work’ older adults complete to meet their daily travel needs. Drawing on a systematic and inductive analysis of semi-structured interviews with older adult (65+ years of age) public transit users in Hamilton, Canada, we argue that older adults are faced with mobility work that younger and/or more able-bodied people do not routinely encounter as they meet (or attempt to meet) their daily travel needs using public transportation. Key components of older adults' trips that involve mobility work include walking to and from the bus stop, trip planning, stepping onto/ off of the bus, finding a seat, carrying items on the bus, calling a stop, and travelling in winter conditions. This mobility work can be categorized as physical (e.g., struggling to board the bus), emotional (e.g., worrying about getting a seat), or spatiotemporal (e.g., staying home when the weather is bad). Taken together, this paper puts forward a multidimensional concept of ‘mobility work’ to aid in considering accessibility at the scale of both the individual and the built environment. Further, by highlighting mobility work, this paper demonstrates the ways in which public transport spaces can be disabling for aging bodies and outlines concrete measures public transit agencies can take to make services more accessible to older adult riders.     

Access to the city: Mobility patterns,transport and accessibility in peripheral settlements of Dar es Salaam

This paper is concerned with access to the city for urban residents living in the periphery of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The paper presents an analysis of the mobility practices of residents and investigates the mobility constraints they experience in relation to the limited accessibility provided by the urban transport system. The paper draws upon qualitative interviews with residents in the periphery as well as recently collected travel speed data and offers a unique combination of testimony with GIS-based modelling of overall accessibility. A central finding is the overall importance of regular mobility and access to the city for residents in the periphery. Regular mobility is an ingrained part of residents' livelihood strategies. The majority of households rely on one or more members regularly travelling to central parts of the city in relation to their livelihood activities. The analysis reveals a widespread, near-to-universal, dependence on motorized transportation, with the vast majority depending on public transport. Raster-based modelling of overall accessibility provides an indication of the very high travel times endured by residents in the periphery. The analysis identifies and distinguishes between three overall mode types: 1) Private car, 2) public transport and 3) motorcycle/car combined with public transport. While private cars appear marginally faster, differences in travel times are actually limited. This suggests that travel times are less influenced by mode of transport than by road and traffic conditions and highlights how accessibility problems of peripheral settlements are not easily understood separately from the general dysfunctions of the overall mobility system of city.     

Division of labour and gender differences in metropolitan car use: An empirical study in Cologne,Germany

This paper suggests the need for a broader view of `gender and transport' by presenting a study of gender differences in car use for maintenance travel. Although many more women are now entering the labour force than a few decades ago, they still have to undertake the larger share of household-related work. The main objective of this paper is to assess the impact of these changing gender roles on travel patterns and in particular on car use for maintenance travel. We used the survey and trip diary data of 949 respondents living in two urban and two suburban neighbourhoods of the Cologne metropolitan area. The empirical findings suggest that labour market and maintenance activities influence car use in different directions. While parenthood reduces the odds of car use by women, it increases men's car use. Labour force participation on the other hand, especially when part-time, intensifies car use for both genders. In short, a levelling influence of paid work and a traditionalizing influence of parenthood regarding car use for maintenance travel was found.     

“The effects of gender transport poverty in Karachi”

Karachi is the economic hub of Pakistan, with an estimated population of 20 million (Khawar, 2017). However, it lacks a systematised public transport service, with few buses and no trains, leaving private bus owners to run poor-quality deregulated services. Although it may be argued that poor service fails to accommodate the needs of the inhabitants of this megacity, women are additionally marginalised by restricted transport services. Men not only have more space allocated to them on public transport but also have the freedom to use alternative and cheaper private modes of transport such as motorbikes and cycles, which are socially discouraged for women. However, there is little literature on the barriers to women's mobility in countries in the Global South, which shows how they are differentially deprived of their agency owing to the cultural norms and gender disparity in transport provision. This paper aims to identify and assess the various aspects of gender transport poverty faced by young working women in Karachi using a quantitative survey. It will broaden the understanding of gender transport poverty in the Global South.     

Motivation and personality traits for choosing religious tourism. A research on the case of Medjugorje

Religion has long been a primary motivation for journeys and it is considered the oldest non-economic reason for travelling. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the reasons tourists choose to travel to sacred sites, with the specific aim of discovering relationships between personality traits and motivations for religious travel. Participating in the research were 679 Italian travellers to Medjugorje sanctuary, who completed the travel motivation scale and big five questionnaire. The results show that motivation is focused prevalently on the need for discovery in men and socialisation in women. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that personality traits are predictive of motivation factors differently for males and females.     

International Mobility Biographies: A Means to Capture the Institutionalisation of Long-distance Travel?

An important aspect of current international travel and tourism is the degree to which they are becoming embedded as regularised and prescribed parts of the lives of individuals, families, and various organisations. At the individual and family levels, patterns of regularised international mobility often only manifest themselves on a time scale that far exceeds that of the reference periods normally used in long-distance travel surveys. Other methods are thus needed to address these issues. This paper discusses a particular method used in ongoing research into the international mobility of young Swedes. Students in the last year of upper secondary school are asked to formulate their international mobility biographies, i.e. all international trips conducted during their childhood and adolescence. The paper discusses the potential of such a ‘biographical approach’ to gathering information about various forms of the regularisation or institutionalisation of international mobility. The approach suggested is contextualised through a review of relevant biographically oriented concepts and approaches in the fields of mobility and tourism research. Methodological challenges involved in collecting information on travel behaviour retrospectively are then discussed, with reference to initial experience gained from research concerning the international mobility of young Swedes.     

Chinese International Students. An Avant‐Garde of Independent Travellers?

Though most long‐haul Chinese travellers participate in group‐based tours, many young Chinese are now travelling overseas to acquire educational qualifications. These ‘study tourists’ travel independently around their place of study, often accompanied by friends and relatives whom they are hosting. Understanding the characteristics of such independent behaviours may offer insights into China's future outbound travel market. This study of 1400 Chinese studying in Australia highlights distinctions between independent student travellers and youth travellers more generally such as backpackers. The findings challenge established typologies of independent youth travellers and raise prospective implications for marketers. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Accessibility and attitudinal barriers encountered by Chinese travellers with physical disabilities

The China travel industry is growing rapidly and is expected to grow even more in the next 15 years. Another segment of the population that is increasing is individuals with physical disabilities. China has enacted several laws to enhance the quality of life for individuals with disabilities and to make travel more accessible. Although individuals with physical disabilities travel less than those without disabilities, the potential market is expanding. If travellers with physical disabilities encounter few barriers during their travels, they may travel even more in the future. This study examined four tourism industry sectors in China in terms of the accessibility and attitudinal barriers that participants with physical disabilities encountered. The four sectors were transportation, accommodations, eating–drinking establishments and attractions. Furthermore, comparisons were conducted on the participants' functioning level, income and types of mobility assistive devices they used. Results suggested that participants' functioning level was an appropriate indicator of the amount of barriers they encountered while travelling. Conversely, the amount of barriers encountered by the participants was not predicated by their income or the type of devices they used. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Dependence between travel distance,individual socioeconomic and health-related characteristics,and the choice of the travel mode: a cross-sectional study for Kaunas,Lithuania

The aim of this study was to analyse the associations between individual socioeconomic and health-related characteristics, travel distance, and the choice of different travel modes in urban population. A cross-sectional study included 932 adults of Kaunas city, Lithuania. The choice of the travel mode and individual characteristics were self-reported by the participants, and their travel routes were calculated using the geographic information system. Multivariate logistic regression was used to assess the most significant factors determining the choice of a car, cycling, walking, or public transport. In total, 529 participants reported using a car, of whom 65.8% had medium or high education levels. These participants were more likely to be younger, male, married, and employed. Among bicycle users, statistically significant differences between the employment status, body mass index, and travel distance were observed. Walkers were significantly more likely to be older, those with lower incomes, unemployed, and travelling the shortest distances. The analysis of the travel distance on the choice of the travel mode revealed that men travelled longer distances with a car compared to women. The employment status was significantly associated with travel distance by car or public transport. Employed individuals travelled longer distances by public transport or by car, compared to unemployed individuals. Among bicycle users, we found that people with higher levels of education and overweight individuals cycled the longest distances. Our study emphasizes the importance of considering different individual characteristics when analysing the choice of transport modes. It provides evidence that is relevant for all urban populations on the choice of the transport mode, particularly considering active versus passive transport.     

Estimating social travel demand of senior citizens in the Netherlands

Like many other countries, the Netherlands is experiencing a sharp rise in the ageing population. As age increases, people’s mobility may decrease. However, older people have more leisure time compared to their younger (working) counterparts, and potentially spend more time on social activities. Therefore, this group can possibly increase social travel demand. However, to date, the travel demand for social activities of senior citizens has received only little attention. This paper studies trip-making for social purposes, with a special focus on the demographic ageing factors. Using social activity diary data, models are estimated to predict the number of social trips, the travel distance and mode of transport for social trips. The results indicate that the elderly of today seem to be as mobile as their younger counterparts with respect to the number of social trips. High education and involvement in clubs on average result in more social trips and full time work is found to result in fewer social trips. With regard to trip distance the results show that the average travel distance does not decrease as people get older. Full time work is found to result in longer social trips. Shorter trips were found for people in urban as well as rural areas. Trips for the purpose of visiting or joint activities tend to be longer than average. With regard to transport mode choice the results indicate that older seniors (75+) are less likely to choose the bicycle, relative to driving. No other significant age effects were found. Significant effects were found for gender, household structure, education level, car ownership, having a disability, urban density, distance and the purpose of the social activity.     

Children’s independent mobility in Portugal: effects of urbanization degree and motorized modes of travel

This study is aimed to evaluate the impact of urbanization in children’s independent mobility in Portugal. Mobility licenses, actual mobility, fear of traffic, stranger danger and sense of community were compared in highly, moderately and non urbanized environments and according to gender. Results showed that increase of urbanization leads to a decrease of children’s licenses to independently cross and cycle main roads; go out after dark and go to places other than school. The rising of urbanization leads to an increase of children’s mean age for independent active travel; and at the same time a decrease of independent active school-home travel and leisure time activities. Parental fear regarding traffic is the most frequent cause for concern regarding children’s safety when they are outdoors. Stranger danger and low sense of community are more prevalent in parents from the highly-urbanized environment. Overall, girls enjoy less actual mobility than boys. The discussion shows that children’s freedom of movement in the highly-urbanized setting is very restricted due to a pervasive automobile dependence, proposing a shift from a motorized to a walkable city.     

Is average daily travel time expenditure constant? In search of explanations for an increase in average travel time

Recent research suggests that the average time spent travelling by the Dutch population has increased over the past decades. However, different data sources show different levels of increase. This paper explores possible causes for this increase. They include a rise in incomes, which has probably resulted in an increase in both travel costs and benefits, the benefits of additional travel having increased more rapidly than costs, and possibly the increased comfort level of cars. Finally, the new opportunities offered to travellers to make better use of their travelling time, such as working in the train, might also have made a contribution.     

More or less travel: personal mobility trends in the Swedish population focusing gender and cohort

This study explores mainstream trends and countertrends in the development of spatial mobility in the Swedish population. Tracing incipient change in travel behaviour is important for understanding the preconditions for social and environmental sustainability. We use data from the Swedish national travel surveys, conducted intermittently over almost 30 years (1978–2006), covering both daily and long-distance mobility. International travel is included for the last decade. With respect to mainstream trends, the results primarily concern the continuation of the spatial extension of overall mobility and of the motorization and individualization of travel modes, as well as an upward convergence between women’s and men’s mobility. When it comes to countertrends, substantial reductions in daily mobility and long-distance domestic travel are observed among the young.     

Decreasing popularity of the car? Changes in driving licence and access to a car among young adults over a 25-year period in Norway

The general impression that car-use has reached a peak or the orientation to have a car has stagnated in several Western countries has been associated with young people being less interested in obtaining a driving licence and getting a car. Examination of public statistics and of data from Norwegian National Travel Surveys indicates that the percentage of young people acquiring a driving licence fell during the 1990s and has been stagnating since the start of the year 2000. Over a 25-year period, we find that young people living outside large cities have a car(s) in the household; they are in paid work and are married/cohabiting. They have a driving licence to a much greater degree than those who live in cities and have good access to public transport; they are students and not married/cohabiting. In the same 25-year period we have seen a higher percentage of young people living in the larger cities, spending longer on education and delaying establishing a family. Our cohort analyses indicate that young cohorts/generations defer from obtaining a driving licence. At age 30 years the proportion of licence holders has been around 90%, but analysis of young cohorts from 2001 to 2009 shows that this figure is declining.     

Mobility effects of b2c and c2c e-commerce in the Netherlands: a quantitative assessment

For more than a decade researchers have been interested in the implications of e-commerce for personal travel and freight transport. So far it is mostly the mobility effects of business-to-consumer (b2c) e-commerce that have been studied. However, consumer-to-consumer (c2c) e-commerce is becoming popular and may have important implications for mobility as well. Moreover, most studies conducted thus far have looked at the consequences of b2c e-commerce for either personal or freight travel, but not for both.This paper takes a more comprehensive approach. Using a nationwide sample of 3000 Dutch e-shoppers we calculated the potential impacts of both types of e-commerce on personal and freight travel. The results indicated that personal travel in the Netherlands has only marginally decreased as a result of e-shopping, while freight transport has slightly increased. The outcomes showed a net mobility effect, as the reduction in personal travel was not fully compensated by the increase in freight transport. However, this mobility reduction was fully attributed to b2c e-commerce, as c2c e-commerce led to an increase in both personal travel and freight transport.     

Young tourists,gender and fear on holiday

This paper addresses, through in-depth interviews and long-term observations, how young men and women perceive fear of crime and violence on holiday. Although many studies have highlighted a difference between males and females with regard to the expression of fear, gendered differences and similarities in the perception and expression of fear have remained largely unexplored within the context of tourism. The results show that gender, despite having been traditionally constructed as a binary concept, did not play a major role in influencing tourists' perceptions of fear on holiday. Interestingly however, the findings reveal that although men and women differ in their perception and expression of fear, a more marked distinction exists among the various masculinities and femininities within the men–women dichotomy. This implies that the investigation of gendered perceptions of fear needs to take into account the non-homogeneous nature of the two groups. This paper rejects the often-assumed stereotypical images of masculinity and femininity.     

A narrative review of Asian female travellers: looking into the future through the past

Following the rise of tourism in Asia, a growing female travel market has been observed in the region. Nevertheless, limited research has considered the travel experience of Asian women. In response to the dearth of research on Asian female travellers, this study employs a narrative synthesis approach through a postcolonial feminist lens to review the extant literature on Asian female travellers, with the aim to contribute to a cultural understanding of the historical and contemporary travel practices of Asian women. Based on this review, it is evident that Asian women’s travel behaviour is influenced by cultural identities and gender stereotypes. However, existing literature has also demonstrated the agency of Asian women in resisting discriminatory gender practices in tourism, which is represented in the transformation of the identity of Asian female travellers. Accordingly, an agenda for future research is proposed and some implications for the industry are discussed. This study addresses the western-centric and androcentric criticisms in tourism field and provides an alternative reading of women’s travel behaviour from an Asian perspective. This study has contributed to the critical tourism scholarship in Asia and has built an important foundation for future research on Asian female travellers, an area that is not well investigated.     

Urban mobility with a focus on gender: The case of a middle-income Latin American city

This study analyzes gender differences in travel patterns for the Metropolitan Area of Montevideo, Uruguay. By applying multilevel regression models, it provides estimates of the impact of individual and contextual factors on travel behavior. The paper's findings lend support to the household responsibility hypothesis, which claims that women's travel patterns are affected by the type of household in which they live and the consequent responsibilities or roles they assume. Furthermore, gender differences in travel patterns are reinforced across census tracts. The results indicate that policy makers need to consider gender differences when seeking to enhance urban planning decisions.