美国国家公园环境教育规划与管理现状 研究及其对中国的启示

美国国家公园环境教育机制具有完备成熟的规划设 计方案和理念,对世界上其他国家的国家公园及自然保护地环 境教育建设具有实际的借鉴作用和参考价值。从环境教育的规 划与管理2个层面剖析美国国家公园环境教育的相关内容,针 对具有代表性的环境教育主题分类、多样的环境教育及解说的 方案、便捷的学习资源获取渠道、公众参与度和完成度较高的 志愿者计划和合作组织、发展完备的环境教育管理等方面进行 归纳和总结,并以红杉树国家公园环境教育规划设计为例进行 实例分析,结合中国国家公园环境教育机制最为欠缺和需要提 高的协调性、联系度、全民公益性、互动性、增益性和契合 度等多角度深入挖掘,总结出中国构建国家公园体制中不容忽 视、不可或缺的启示内容。     

TALL TREES, PEOPLE, AND POLITICS: THE OPPORTUNITY COSTS OF THE REDWOOD NATIONAL PARK

Because individuals in the marketplace directly face opportunity costs, they must balance marginal costs against marginal benefits. In contrast, in politics, the opportunity costs facing decision makers are diluted. Estimates of the social costs of various public programs are generally understated, while the estimates of social benefits are exaggerated
This paper places the establishment and expansion of the Redwood National Park within this framework and analyzes it as a public investment decision. It is shown that in the initial creation of the Redwood National Park in 1968, the costs of land acquisition and employment loss were underestimated, while the projections for gains in tourism were excessive. Despite the opposition of local landowners and residents, the Park was further expanded 10 years later in 1978. There was again a misstatement of costs and benefits and also the creation of an expensive new entitlement program to defuse the opposition of labor
The experience with the redwood National Park illustrates the results of the political process, which allows decision makers to internalize benefits and externalize costs. Emotion and rhetoric tend to displace a careful weighing of marginal costs and benefits     

国家公园社会影响体系构建与评价 ——以秦岭国家公园为例

基于社会影响评价对国家公园设立产生的社会影响 与社会效益等，进行预先识别、分析、预测具有重要意义。 采用文献资料收集、实地考察、问卷调查等方式开展社会评 价调研，构建国家公园社会影响评价指标体系。通过定量与 定性分析、利益相关者分析以及对比分析等方法，对秦岭国 家公园设立的社会影响、经济影响、风险等进行评价。研 究发现：1)秦岭国家公园建设与利益相关者之间呈正相关关 系；2)社会影响广泛，具有较强的适应性；3)有利于区域经 济和生态的协同发展；4)整体风险程度一般，通过科学管理 和严格管控可有效规避或防范；5)通过制定社会管理方案， 可增强秦岭国家公园建设与社会效益的可持续性。因此，认 为：国家公园社会影响评价体系符合中国国情和国家公园发展 实际，具有较强的科学性、适应性和可操作性。     

中国国家公园特许制度的框架建构

国家公园特许经营的本质是社会资本方获得相关特许权利用国家公园的资源提供公共产品或服务。美国国家公园系统通过特许权合同授权个人、公司或其他实体为访客提供的“必需且适宜的”商业性服务便属于此类。“Concession”的原意是特许权，也指授权这种行为。特许经营是特许制度的组成部分而非全部。特许权合同、授权、许可证、租约、地役权契约等授权形式构成美国国家公园的资源利用制度。联合国开发计划署提出的自然保护地特许权包括许可证、租约、地役权、执照等形式。中国国家公园保护第一、公益至上，应建立科学的资源利用特许制度为资源保护管理提供制度保障。签订特许权合同、发放许可证(这2种形式在必要时附以租赁合同)、签订地役权合同为主要授权形式是符合我国国情的国家公园特许制度的基本框架。     

美国国家公园应对气候变化的经验及其对中国国家公园建设的启示

2017年随着《建设国家公园体制总体方案》的出台，中国的国家公园建设逐渐步入正轨。然而我国人口众多，幅员辽阔，气候条件复杂且生态环境脆弱，正在建立的国家公园极易受到气候变化所带来的不利影响，且我国关于国家公园应对气候变化的研究较少。美国的国家公园体制较为完善，在应对气候变化方面已有较为深入的探索。通过文献调研和比较分析法，以佛罗里达州大沼泽地国家公园和亚利桑那州大峡谷国家公园为例，分析其应对气候变化的方法与经验，并从气候监测、国家公园管理、适应性规划以及环境教育等方面对我国国家公园应对气候变化提出建议，使正在建设中的中国特色国家公园体制稳步推进。     

基于手机信令数据的上海大型公园 分类研究

利用手机信令大样本数据中提取的上海32个大型公园游客出发、抵达、离开时间和居住地坐标等数据信息，解析公园游客时空行为，利用行为特性在公园使用中的表征将公园进行分类：基于公园的游客来源地(以下简称“客源地”)覆盖范围划分为服务公园周边区域的局地类和服务市域的广域2个大类；基于不同时段客流量分布趋势的均缓与集中特性，划分局地均缓、局地集中，广域均缓和广域集中4个中类；基于客源地核心形态紧凑与松散的特性，将4个中类分为局地均缓紧凑、局地均缓松散等8个小类。分别通过8类公园的时空指标——客源地面积、核心聚集面积、游客居住地至公园的人均OD和高峰开始与持续时间，对每类公园特征进行了量化描述并对其成因进行了解析。将基于游客行为的“公园利用类型”与基于资源供给视角的“公园规划类型”分类结果进行比对，发掘产生公园定位错位的原因，并对公园的规划管理现状提出改进建议。     

Managing wetlands: an ecological economic analysis of the Hong Kong Wetland Park

This paper addresses the question of whether the Hang Kong government made a rational economic decision when it decided to set aside land to develop a Wetland Park, or whether it should have used the land for alternative commercial developments. Different analytical methods are used to estimate the economic value of the environmental benefits of the Wetland Park： the Value Transfer Method is used to estimate the economic value oJ the ecological services provided by the Park. the Direct Market Price analysis for the economic value of the goods purchased in the Wetland Park, the Hedonic Housing Price Analysis for the value of the Park to those residing in its proximity, the Travel Cost and Contingent Valuation Method for the value of the Park to the visitors, and the Contingent Valuation for the Passive （Nonuse） Values of the Park. These benefits are compared to the opportunity cost of the land and the cost of running the Wetland Park. The article concludes that if a rate of 5% or less is used to discount fiture costs and benefits, we would find that the government＇s decision to set aside land for a Wetland Park was economically sound while using a discount rate of 6% or more shows that it was not.     

关于我国森林公园生态环境教育及其保护的对策思考——以张家界国家森林公园为例

在我国森林公园是森林旅游的主要载体,张家界国家森林公园是我国第一个森林公园,经过20多年的发展,已成为国内外知名的旅游景区。然而,由于长期以来我国旅游业“重发展,轻保护”的错误思想,导致公园旅游从业人员及管理人员生态环境意识的薄弱,公园内的生态环境教育及保护措施缺乏,环境监测、生物多样性监测、旅游发展监测和游客体验监测等生态环境保护的科研支持体系更是空白。通过建立旅游从业人员培训制度,建立森林公园环境解译系统,建立环境监测体系、生物多样性监测、旅游发展监测和游客体验监测体系对张家界国家森林公园的生态环境教育及生态环境保护的科研体系提出了建议。     

Effects of the October 2013 U.S. Federal government shutdown on National Park gateway communities: the case of Acadia National Park and Bar Harbor,Maine

The U.S. Federal Government experienced a shutdown that halted much of its spending and services over 16 days in October 2013. Federal government officials noted a wide variety of impacts that the shutdown had on economic activity, including a reduction in the admission fees collected by the National Park Service and losses of visitor spending in ‘gateway communities’ located near national parks and monuments. This article examines the effects of the October 2013 federal government shutdown on Acadia National Park’s gateway community of Bar Harbor, Maine. Regression results show that the 16-day shutdown is associated with a 76% reduction in Acadia visitation in October 2013 and a 13% reduction in tourism-related sales. This suggests that an estimated 17% of the potential visitors impacted by the Acadia closure cancelled their trips to Bar Harbor. This change in visitor behaviour is a reasonably large response to a short-term event such as the government shutdown.     

Economic valuation of the Leuser National Park on Sumatra,Indonesia

The Leuser Ecosystem in Northern Sumatra is officially protected by its status as an Indonesian national park. Nevertheless, it remains under severe threat of deforestation. Rainforest destruction has already caused a decline in ecological functions and services. Besides, it is affecting numerous economic activities in and around the Leuser National Park. The objectives of this study are twofold: firstly, to determine the total economic value (TEV) of the Leuser Ecosystem through a systems dynamic model. And secondly, to evaluate the economic consequences of deforestation versus conservation, disaggregating the economic value for the main stakeholders and regions involved. Using a dynamic simulation model, economic valuation is applied to evaluate the TEV of the Leuser National Park over the period 2000–2030. Three scenarios are considered: ‘conservation’, ‘deforestation’ and, ‘selective use’. The results are presented in terms of (1) the type of benefits, (2) the allocation of these benefits among stakeholders, and (3) the regional distribution of benefits. The economic benefits considered include: water supply, fisheries, flood and drought prevention, agriculture and plantations, hydro-electricity, tourism, biodiversity, carbon sequestration, fire prevention, non-timber forest products, and timber. The stakeholders include: local community members, the local government, the logging and plantation industry, the national government, and the international community. The regions considered cover the 11 districts involved in the management of the Leuser Ecosystem. With a 4% discount rate, the accumulated TEV for the ecosystem over the 30-year period is: US $7.0 billion under the ‘deforestation scenario’, US $9.5 billion under the ‘conservation scenario’ and US $9.1 billion under the ‘selective utilisation scenario’. The main contributors in the conservation and selective use scenarios are water supply, flood prevention, tourism and agriculture. Timber revenues play an important role in the deforestation scenario. Compared to deforestation, conservation of the Leuser Ecosystem benefits all categories of stakeholders, except for the elite logging and plantation industry.     

DID THE GREAT RECESSION REDUCE VISITOR SPENDING AND WILLINGNESS TO PAY FOR NATURE‐BASED RECREATION? EVIDENCE FROM 2006 AND 2009

Outdoor recreation is a large industry that can diversify public land‐based economies that have traditionally relied upon resource extraction. However, what happens to nature‐based recreation visitor spending and benefits during times of national economic recession? To address this question, we replicate a 2006 high mountain recreation study in the same region 3 years later during the 2009 recession. Results indicate that nature‐based public land recreation in this area did not experience reductions in most categories of visitor spending or total number of visits during the recession. These results imply that nature‐based recreation may represent an economically stable industry in public land mountain economies. Total benefits to the visitors are also quite stable, only dropping from $129 per person per trip in 2006 to $120 in 2009. This 7% drop in willingness to pay is not statistically significant at conventional levels. (JEL Q26)     

Measuring Passive Use Value: Pledges, Donations and CV Responses in Connection with an Important Natural Resource

This paper examines monetary valuations of lost passive-use benefits associated with damage to a unique environmental resource – a national park, elicited through contingent valuation, and compares them with actual donations to the same end, where the latter are interpreted as a quasi-market expression of willingness to pay for non-market resource services. The relationships between the two valuation approaches were investigated in the specific context of an environmental episode which damaged a unique natural endowment, Israel's Carmel National Park. The empirical analysis is based on data from two sample surveys; one sample was drawn from the population of people who either pledged or pledged and donated during a fund-raising campaign following the episode, with the proceeds dedicated to rehabilitation or prevention of future episodes; the second sample was drawn from the general population of the country. The results cannot be interpreted as providing unqualified support for the reliability of contingent valuation as a means for obtaining passive use values.     

The cost of natural capital consumption: Accounting for a sustainable world economy

The System for integrated Environmental and Economic Accounting (SEEA) has been criticized in this journal for ignoring the benefits of ecosystem services for human well-being. This paper argues that extended national accounts should not attempt measuring economic welfare. Rather, they could and should assess the environmental sustainability of economic activity as the cost of natural capital consumption. The global application of SEEA concepts and methods demonstrates the feasibility of international green accounting. For the world economy, sustainability costs run to about 3 trillion US$ or 6% of world GDP. Large variations at national and regional levels suggest that conventional economic indicators may significantly overstate economic progress in some parts of the world. Data gaps and lack of data comparability affect these first estimates. National and international statistical services should be more aggressive in greening the national accounts. More prudent and more sustainable economic policies might be the result.     

基于GPS数据与空间统计的城市森林公园 景观偏好研究

城市森林公园拥有良好的自然资源,能承载各种游 憩活动,为市民带来多种益处。以上海共青森林公园与炮台湾 森林公园为例,利用GPS设备每隔10s采集一次游客的地理坐 标位置,并应用栅格密度、标准差椭圆与热点识别3种空间统 计方法分析相关空间位置点,识别受游客喜爱的游憩场地与景 观空间类型。结果表明：游客在2个森林公园中的分布并不均 匀,共青森林公园西部与炮台湾森林公园南部吸引了大量游 客;最吸引游客停留的区域包括儿童游乐设施区、广场、大草 坪、烧烤区和滨江区域。最后,根据分析结果,对森林公园的 规划设计与管理提出了相应建议。     

基于序参量的国家公园社区人地关系 优化研究：可持续生计视角

国家公园作为中国重点生态功能区，在建设的过程 中面临着人和地2个突出的约束。为了推动国家公园社区和谐 人地关系的实现，以可持续生计为视角，运用系统分析法剖析 国家公园社区人地关系的构成和主要人地矛盾的类型，根据协 同学中的探索图法求解影响国家公园社区人地关系的序参量， 发现人地关系的优化机会，将相关结论运用于武夷山国家公园 社区分析，并提出优化建议。以社区生计为切入点，尝试通过 化解生计困境、提升生计水平来优化人地关系，促进参与协作 式“公园-社区”关系的实现，从而推动中国国家公园管理体 制的建立与完善。     

Optimal Dynamic Control of Visitors and Endangered Species in a National Park

To enable visitors to enjoy nature while protecting endangered species is the key challenge for national parks around the world. In our optimal dynamic control model, a park management maximizes tourism revenues and conservation benefits net of control costs by choosing optimal dynamic levels of conservation and visitor management. The optimization is constrained by an extended food chain model representing species-habitat-visitor interactions. We illustrate for a game bird in an Alpine national park that ecotourism can indeed lead to ecosystem degradation when the park management is more concerned about increasing tourism revenues than about achieving the conservation target and if the endangered species is unknown to most visitors. If, however, the park management is well aware of the potentially negative consequences of ecotourism and hence cares for species conservation, limited ecotourism can provide funding for species conservation which ensures population levels above the uncontrolled steady state.     

Policies for the management of weeds in natural ecosystems: the case of scotch broom (Cytisus scoparius,L.) in an Australian national park

Environmental weeds are plants that invade natural ecosystems and present a serious threat to conservation of nature. Environmental weeds have been implicated in the extinction of several indigenous plant species, and they also threaten ecosystem stability and functional complexity. Historically, emphasis in weed control in Australian national parks has been placed on chemicals, manual pulling of small plants, excluding tourists and feral animal control measures. Recently, biological control has been introduced to control weed infestations. These methods typically have been applied as funds have become available, with little opportunity to consider their long-term effectiveness. As the threat from environmental weeds is becoming more fully recognised, an integrated, strategic, ecological and economic approach to weed management is needed. A deterministic dynamic programming model is developed for this purpose in this paper. A case study for scotch broom is presented, to assess the ways in which this approach can address the policy issues that face the community in the management of an environmental weed in a national park. The model takes account of the weed population dynamics, the effectiveness and cost of control measures, and the value of the park outputs (biodiversity, recreation and grazing). The dynamic programming model includes weed density and seed bank as state variables and a budget constraint for the control variables. The model is used to derive optimal control rules for any given state of the weed population. An optimal decision rule provides a package of control measures that can be used to attack the problem each year, depending on the current weed density and seed bank. Optimal trajectories are developed for a planning horizon of 45 years, and the effect of the budget constraint is analysed. The marginal value of an extra dollar for weed control, in terms of discounted future benefits, is estimated. It is shown that a combination of controls that targets both weed density and the seed bank is important. It is also shown (given the assumed parameters) that biological control is worth undertaking, as it appears as part of most of the optimal strategies identified. The paper concludes with policy recommendations for managing weeds in natural ecosystems.     

Local community reaction to the ‘no-take’ policy on fishing in the Tsitsikamma National Park, South Africa

Fishing in the Tsitsikamma National Park has officially been halted since 2001. However, the desire to fish in the Marine Protected Area remains high among the local communities in Tsitsikamma. This has led to illegal fishing practices in the park. Consequently, the reaction of the local communities was measured using semi-structured questionnaires, informal interactions, personal observations, and through a key informant workshop that was organized in the Tsitsikamma National Park. It was found that responses from local communities to fishing within the park were defined by their residence status, ethnicity, gender, income, and educational level. There is a general understanding by local communities that the purpose of the Tsitsikamma National Park is to conserve nature within its boundaries. However, there is a mismatch in the understanding of the term ‘conservation’ between the local communities and conservation officials of the South African National Parks (SANParks). Local communities consider conservation to include sustainable utilization while conservation officials from the practice pursue absolute protection of the marine fisheries resources. The majority of local communities in Tsitsikamma resent this SANParks ‘no-take’ policy on fishing. They would like access to the fisheries resources in the Tsitsikamma National Park for both subsistence and recreational purposes.     

An economic evaluation of ramipril in the treatment of patients at high risk for cardiovascular events due to diabetes mellitus

SUMMARY

Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is a major cause of death and morbidity in the United Kingdom (UK) and carries with it a significant financial cost through health care resource use. More than one in three people die from CVD events, and the cost to the UK National Health Service (NHS) was £1.6 billion in 1996¹. The recently published MICRO-HOPE study evaluated the treatment of 3,577 patients at high risk for cardiovascular events from diabetes mellitus and demonstrated significant survival and morbidity benefits associated with ramipril.

The purpose of this paper is to assess whether the significant clinical benefits offered by ramipril can be translated into economic benefits, and to what extent it can reduce the economic burden of CVD to the UK NHS.

Applying the same analytical framework used in a previous economic analysis of the HOPE study, our base case estimate of cost-effectiveness for ramipril in the MICRO HOPE study is £2,396 per life-year saved (undiscounted) and £2,971 per life-year saved (discounted). A sensitivity analysis was performed which ranged from a best case of £1,954 per life-year saved (undiscounted) to a worst case of £2,964 per life-year saved (undiscounted). Our base case estimate of cost-effectiveness suggests that treating patients at high risk for CVD events with ramipril is likely to be a good investment of NHS resources.     

基于国家公园的生态旅游发展国际合作研究

中国与东盟水陆相连,文化相近,双方国家公园发展存在很多的共性和个性。通过对双方国家公园内生态旅游发展现状的分析,发现双方在地理区位、文化认同以及国家公园的发展理念上都存在着开展生态旅游合作的广泛基础。双方可在学术交流、客源互送、管理人员交流与培训、生态旅游产品合作开发、构建国家公园无障碍生态旅游圈等方面加强合作,并相应地构建平等互利的合作交流机制。