HOW SHOULD WE MEASURE THE “ECONOMIC” ASPECTS OF WELL‐BEING?

The Human Development Index (HDI) uses GDP per capita to measure “command over resources,” which implicitly makes the strong value judgment that inequality and insecurity do not matter. This paper presents revised estimates of the Index of Economic Well‐Being (IEWB) for the United States, the U.K., Canada, Australia, Germany, Norway and Sweden for the period 1980 to 2001 and demonstrates that replacing an index of the log per capita incomes with our IEWB as the “command over resources” component in the Human Development Index (HDI) affects the level and trend of the HDI, even among affluent nations. Because the IEWB recognizes four dimensions of command over resources (Current effective per capita Consumption flows, Net societal Accumulation of stocks of productive resources, Income Distribution and Economic Security), its use has a particularly large impact where underlying trends in these components diverge (e.g. the U.K. or the United States).     

中美两国工业化进程中铜消费指标分析

工业化进程与资源消耗密切相关,GDP或人均GDP可用来衡量一个国家的工业化进程。本文以5年为一个时间段分析了中美两国历史上单位GDP铜消费量(T)的变化,发现中国1960～2005年间单位GDP的铜消费量并未出现明显的上升或下降趋势;美国1929～2005年间单位GDP的铜消费量基本上呈较明显的下降趋势,在20世纪20～40年代T值在高位持续了一定年份,不过自1941年以后T值逐步下降,单位GDP的铜消费量降低了81%。GDP的年增长率(g)和单位GDP铜消费量的年下降率(t)是影响铜消费量变化的两个重要参数,对应不同的单位GDP铜消费量年下降率的假设,文章估算出未来中国经济增长与铜消费指标间的关系以及单位GDP铜消费量降低的百分数,提出了一些实现铜消费减量的措施。最后,给出了中美两国工业化进程中的铜消费量与GDP、人均铜消费量与人均GDP间的关系曲线,总结出铜消费的一些规律。     

我国居民消费与经济增长关系的区域差异研究

利用1997—2009年全国30个省(市、自治区)的省际面板数据,构建了我国居民消费与经济增长关系的动态面板数据模型,运用广义矩估计方法对我国居民消费与经济增长关系的区域差异进行了实证分析。结果表明:东、中、西部三大地区的当期人均实际GDP对当期人均实际居民消费均具有显著影响,且前一期人均实际居民消费对当期人均实际居民消费也均具有显著影响,但各地区的消费习惯的程度不同。     

中国人均能源碳排放因素分解及减排途径分析

以1981-2008年中国一次能源消费总量、人口数和GDP数据为基础,通过实证分析经济发展、能源强度和能源结构对这一时期人均碳排放的贡献发现:经济发展拉动了人均能源碳排放的增长,能源强度的降低抑制了人均能源碳排放的增长,能源结构的变化在研究期内先对人均能源碳排放起促进作用,然后起抑制作用,其拐点出现在1997年,但研究期内贡献不显著.近年来,能源结构的贡献却有逐步增强的趋势.     

中国城市经济发展差异性与阶段研究

用城市人均GDP标准差、城市人均GDP变异系数、城市人均GDP的基尼系数和泰尔指数来研究我国23座典型城市经济发展的绝对差异、相对差异和总体差异;用人均GDP与GDP增长率指标的点矩阵图来研究我国23座典型城市经济发展的变化,并结合钱纳里的人均经济总量与经济发展阶段关系理论对我国23座典型城市的经济发展阶段进行划分,并进行了实证分析。得出如下结论:中国23座典型城市经济发展的差异性逐渐加大;中国城市经济发展的大体趋势为"人均GDP、GDP增长率双低"→"人均GDP低、GDP增长率高"→"人均GDP、GDP增长率双高"→"人均GDP高、GDP增长率低";代表城市北京的经济发展经历了初级产品生产阶段、工业化阶段、发达经济阶段的初级阶段;中国城市经济的发展潜力巨大。     

Does More Consumption Promote Real GDP Growth?

This paper employs Hansen's (1999) panel threshold regression model [Journal of Econometrics 39 (1999) 345–68] based on a time series dataset of 109 countries from 1960 to 2007 to investigate the threshold relationship between the change in real GDP per capita and the consumption size (consumption‐income ratio, APC). The results show that the consumption level should not exceed the 49.68% threshold of real GDP per capita for each country regardless of the income level. Also, the relationship between the change in real GDP per capita and the consumption size seems to have ‘Armey curve’ or ‘inverted‐U shape’ characteristic. In order to promote real GDP growth, our results suggest that the high‐income, low‐APC countries should encourage more consumption while the low‐income, high‐APC countries should encourage more saving.     

On the impact of innovation and inequality in economic growth

We present robust results on the empirical relationship among income inequality, innovation, and economic growth for a panel dataset of 74 countries over the period 1996–2014. We estimate pairwise causality tests to show that there is bidirectional causality between GDP per capita and R&D, while R&D causes the Gini index of income inequality, and it causes human capital. Allowing coefficients to be different across cross-sections of countries, we get in any case a pairwise bi-directionality. By dynamic panel data estimations, when regressing R&D on GDP per capita, we obtain a threshold value of 0.16% of R&D such that for values above it there is economic growth. While regressing R&D on the Gini index, we get a threshold of 0.10% of R&D above which, the income distribution begins to improve. Finally, we estimate a growth equation that depends on R&D, income inequality, and physical capital. We obtain two thresholds, one of 38.79 for the Gini (above which the economic growth decreases), and one of 0.06% for R&D such that above it, economic growth is rising.     

中国煤炭需求增长极限及其调控

本文利用面板数据的相关理论和模型建立起煤炭需求与经济发展的库兹涅茨曲线模型,并将工业化和城市化两个重要因素引入模型中,以对中国工业化和城市化进程中的煤炭库兹涅茨曲线进行研究。回归结果表明,中国工业化、城市化进程推动了煤炭需求快速增长,其中工业化对中国煤炭需求的作用远大于城市化,意味着中国工业化水平的加快是引起煤炭消费增长的主要原因,城市化水平则次之。煤炭消费量随着人均GDP的增长,先增加后减少,说明我国煤炭需求与经济增长之间的库兹涅茨特征明显,能源库兹涅茨的“倒U型”曲线假说在中国成立。模型显示,煤炭需求下降的理论拐点在2040年左右。考虑到各项制约因素的作用,中国煤炭年需求量和产量实际上已经达到增长的极限,因此,应采取各种有效的调控措施,严格控制煤炭需求量的上升,促使库兹涅茨曲线拐点提前到来。     

Economic growth and structure of domestic absorption: Evidence from internationally comparable data

Using the Chenery-Syrquin models of structural change, and internationally comparable data on GDP per capita and shares of consumption, investment and government spending for the 1960s and the 1970s, a study is conducted of changes in the structure of domestic absorption that accompany economic growth. Relative to the conventional data, ‘real’ data indicate the fall in the share of consumption to be somewhat lower and the rise in the share of investment to be larger, as GDP per capita rises. The share of government is observed to decline, although most previous studies indicate an increase in government share with economic growth.     

中国未来不同生育水平下的经济增长后果比较研究

对中国未来90年不同生育水平下的经济增长后果进行了人口-经济动态模拟。在生育水平过低导致劳动力减少过快、人口老龄化过重、劳动负担加重的情况下,将使经济增长大大放缓;而较高的生育水平下,虽然经济增长速度略快,但是人均GDP增长速度慢于中方案生育水平下的经济增长,并且人均GDP水平也具有较大差异。完善当前生育政策,使生育水平稳定在1.9-2.0之间,如此人口在本世纪缓慢地减少也将有利于我国的经济增长和人均生活水平的提高。同时,在低生育水平下,依靠劳动增加和资本积累的粗放型经济增长将不复存在,经济发展方式转变是必然选择,技术创新、技术进步将是未来经济增长首要源泉。     

INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF AUSTRALIAN GDP IN THE 19TH CENTURY

This paper summarises the results of a new comparison of the level of Australian and U.K. real product in the 1890s, obtained by the direct deflation of money values of GDP by relative prices. The object of the study was to provide a check on the existing comparisons, obtained by extrapolation of time series of real GDP, as shown, for example, in Maddison (1982). Existing estimates imply that in the 1890s Australian GDP per capita was about 50 percent higher in the U.K. and U.S.A. and more than twice that for the average of 12 other western countries. The present study suggests these results probably overstate Australia's real GDP, and that Australian real GDP per capita was 36 percent higher than the U.K. in 1891 and 3 percent higher in 1900. Personal consumption per capita was 15 percent higher in Australia than in the U.K. in 1891, but about the same level in 1900.
Although this study compares prices and GDP in the colony of New South Wales with those in the U.K., the colony may be taken as representative of Australia as a whole.¹     

地方经济发展与企业资本结构选择——来自我国上市公司的经验证据

本文选择1994～2004我国上市公司数据为研究样本,检验地方经济发展以及地方经济发展因素与公司内因素的交互作用如何影响企业资本结构。本文发现,人均居民消费水平越高,企业资产负债率越高;人均GDP较高的地区,人均居民消费水平对资产负债率影响较小,企业资产负债率较高;企业非债务税盾越大,人均GDP对其资产负债率影响越小;城乡储蓄年度余额越高的地区,企业资产负债率越高;随着地区人均GDP的提高,城乡储蓄对企业资产负债率的影响减小;资本形成总额越高、企业资产负债率越高。     

Global value chain and growth convergence: Applied especially to China

We propose a new convergence potential indicator for standard growth convergence regressions: the global value chain (GVC) position index, measured by the contribution of high-skilled labour in total domestic value added. Our convergence indicator can avoid the lagged dependent variable problem discussed in Barro (2015 and 2016) and deliver more accurate forecasts for China’s GDP growth than GDP per capita does. Using the GVC position index, we predict that China’s growth potential remains at 7–8% between 2010 and 2015, while the predictions using GDP per capita as the convergence potential indicator are much lower.     

Openness,growth convergence and China’s development prospects

ABSTRACT

This paper examines China’s long-term growth prospects and the potential drivers of future growth, based on cross-country productivity convergence and China’s featured demographic evolution. In a nonlinear open economy catch-up growth model, per capital GDP growth of the followers depend on that of the leading economy and time varying convergence of the relative per capita GDP. Comparable open economies of China are identified in terms of relative per capita GDP and the historical data of which are used to project China’s trajectory of productivity convergence and then the growth of per capita GDP. Projection shows China’s future GDP growth will gradually descend from 6.6–6.7% (2016–2020) to 2.6–2.7% (2046–2050) in low variant. Predictions under medium and high variants are provided as well. The importance of further opening-up domestic markets, elimination of birth control policies and accumulation of human capital in the process of promoting urbanization are highlighted and have significant implications for the economic restructuring and transformation of China.

Abbreviations: ICRG: International Country Risk Guide; IMF: International Monetary Fund     

Factors of production,productivity, institutions,and development: Evidence from Brazil

The economic growth and development literature emphasizes that investment in technology and physical and human capital is essential for achieving higher levels of development. Political and economic institutions are also relevant in this process. With a sample of 5,503 Brazilian municipalities, this study carries out a development accounting exercise and measures the effects of institutional quality on per capita gross domestic product (GDP), physical capital intensity, human capital stock, and productivity. The empirical results indicate that institutional quality affects GDP per capita mainly through human capital accumulation and total factor productivity.     

An empirical analysis of the relationship between economic development and population growth in China

China has experienced a dramatic demographic transition since the latter half of the twentieth century, and thus, assessing the global economic implications is an important issue. This article uses time-series data on China to estimate the determinants of gross domestic product (GDP) per capita. According to the results of the presented co-integration analysis, population has a significantly negative impact on GDP per capita, while savings rate, total factor productivity and degree of industrialization have significantly positive impacts on GDP per capita. These results suggest that the share of the working-age population relative to the total population does not have a strong influence on GDP per capita. Therefore, the contribution of the working-age population to economic growth might not be as large as previously assumed. It is also possible that an increase in savings, remarkable industrialization and rapid technological progress have all stimulated economic growth in China greatly.     

资源型城市经济增长——资源的“诅咒”还是距离的“暴政”

从资源依赖视角来看,在非资源型城市资源依赖与人均GDP增长率正相关;在资源型城市资源依赖与人均GDP的增长率负相关。从各城市的地理位置来看,中部地区城市和西部地区城市资源依赖与人均GDP的增长率之间呈现倒U型关系。但是,东部地区城市资源依赖与人均GDP的增长率之间呈现J型关系,"资源诅咒"在东部地区城市中并没有出现。     

市场机制建设与经济增长方式的转变——理论与实证分析

虽然转变经济增长方式问题的提出由来已久,但是我国经济增长主要依靠增加投入的状况却并没有明显改变。已有研究主要以理论分析为主,缺乏实证检验。笔者通过建立多元回归模型,用研发投入强度、市场化指数、人均发电量和霍夫曼系数,对各省(区、市)的单位工业增加值能耗进行分析,证明了市场化指数是决定单位工业增加值能耗的主要因素。这意味着只要减少政府干预、提高市场化程度、建立起完善的市场机制,就能实现中国经济增长方式的转变。     

Explaining Differences in Economic Growth among OECD Countries

This paper re-examines the determinants of growth of GDP per capita using panel data for OECD countries for the period 1970–1999 with data averaged over five-year periods from new perspectives. First, we introduce indicators of innovation input and technological specialization simultaneously into the empirical growth equation. Second, we employ the system-GMM (Generalized-Method-of-Moments) panel estimator that controls for (a) the possible specification bias when variables are highly persistent over time and (b) the possible simultaneity bias. We find a large and statistically significant impact of business enterprise R&D (BERD) intensity on GDP per capita with an elasticity of 0.22. The share of high-technology exports is also significantly positively related to GDP per capita, but the magnitude suggests that BERD is more important than technological specialization in explaining the level of GDP per capita. Furthermore, we find that the budget deficit and government consumption (both measured as percentages of GDP) and the volatility of growth are significantly negatively related to GDP per capita.The authors would like to thank Gunther Tichy for helpful comments on an earlier draft of this article. We also thank the participants of the Austrian economic association conference (NOEG) and the Empirical Industrial Organization workshop at the WU WIEN for helpful comments. We gratefully acknowledge financial support from the OeNB Jubiläumsfonds Project and the Austrian Federal Ministry for Economy and Labor (BMWA).JEL codes: E62, H20, H50, O23, O40     

Unfolding the Turbulent Century: A Reconstruction of China's Historical National Accounts, 1840–19121

This paper reconstructs China's economic development between 1840 and 1912 with an estimation of Gross Domestic Product (GDP). It provides for the first time a time series of GDP (per capita) for the late Qing Dynasty (1644–1911), based on sectoral output and value added, in current as well as in constant prices. The present estimation of per capita GDP in the late Qing period comes out higher than previous estimations, but it still suggests low average levels of Chinese living standards. The economy during the late Qing Empire was characterized by a large and growing agricultural sector and displayed only minor structural changes. Only in the beginning of the twentieth century did the economy start to show signs of growth.