Treatment of oilfield produced water by waste stabilization ponds.

Produced water (PW) from oil wells can serve as an alternative water resource for agriculture if the main pollutants (hydrocarbons and heavy metals) can be removed to below irrigation standards. Waste stabilization ponds seem like a promising solution for PW treatment, especially in the Middle East where solar radiation is high and land is available. In this work, hydrocarbon removal from PW in a biological waste stabilization pond was examined at lab-scale followed by an intermittent slow sand filter. The system was run for 300 days and removed around 90% of the oil in the pond, and 95% after the sand filter. COD removal was about 80% in the pond effluent, and 85% after the filter. The system was tested under various operational modes and found to be stable to shock loads. Installation of oil booms and decantation of surface oil seem to be important in order to maintain good system performance over time.     

Implications for physical design: The effect of depth on the performance of waste stabilization ponds.

Studies on experimental primary facultative ponds showed that varying the depth from 1.25 m to 2.3 m had no effect on the rates of BOD removal. In contrast k values for FC removal rates were higher in the shallower (1.25 m) facultative ponds. The risk of odour release via H2S production was higher in the 2.2 m ponds than the 1.25 m ponds and NH3 removal was much better in the 1.25 m facultative ponds. A comparison of the efficiency of shallow 5-pond series (1.0 m and 0.61 m deep) with a 2.2 m deep series showed that the shallow systems were more efficient at FC removal, but the deeper series actually saved land area for the same FC final effluent quality under tropical conditions. However, efficient nutrient removal (N and P) only occurred in the shallow series and effluent standards for nutrient concentrations are unlikely to be met by 2.2 m deep 5-pond series in contrast to the norms for pathogen removal.     

Escherichia coli removal in waste stabilization ponds: a comparison of modern and classical designs.

Two PC-based waste stabilization pond design procedures, based on parameter uncertainty and 10,000-trial Monte Carlo simulations, were developed for a series of anaerobic, facultative and maturation ponds to produce < or = 1000 E. coli per 100 ml for both 50% and 95% compliance. One procedure was based on the classical Marais equations and the other on the modern von Sperling equations. For the range of parameter variations selected the classical design procedure required less land area and had a shorter hydraulic retention time than the modern design procedure. For both procedures the design for 90% compliance required substantially more land and a longer retention time than the design for 50% compliance. Regulators and designers should seek a balance between system reliability (as set by the percentage compliance specified or adopted) and system costs, especially (but not only) in developing countries. It is recommended that new waste stabilization pond (WSP) systems be designed for compliance with a given E. coli effluent requirement by the classical procedure and that existing overloaded WSP systems be upgraded using the modern procedure.     

Light attenuation parameters for waste stabilisation ponds.

Effective modelling of shallow water ecosystems, including waste stabilisation ponds, is strongly dependent on the availability of good estimates of the light attenuation coefficient k (m(-1)). Experimental data is presented on its determination using purpose-built laboratory apparatus with a near-parallel halogen light source and an array of photodiodes allowing measurements of irradiance at different depths. The equipment was used to compare k values from 4 different pure cultures, and mixed cultures of algae taken from a pilot-scale WSP. Laboratory values were compared with in situ measurements in the pond. At concentrations above 50 mg l(-1) the relationship between k and suspended solids is non-linear; k also varied with depth. This could be modelled by a single equation, suggesting similarity of response in different cultures. At shallow depths and low suspended solids concentrations k values are variable and hard to measure reliably. The results highlight the need to standardise on a method for the measurement and reporting of k values if these are to be widely applicable in the development of pond models.     

Waste stabilization ponds and rock filters: solutions for small communities.

In temperate climates facultative ponds and rock filters (either unaerated or, if ammonia removal is required, aerated) are a low-cost but high-performance treatment system for small rural communities. Effluent quality is suitable for surface water discharge or, in summer, for restricted crop irrigation. In tropical climates anaerobic and facultative ponds and either unaerated rock filters or, if ammonia reduction is required, subsurface horizontal-flow or vertical-flow constructed wetland, can be used if the effluents are discharged to surface waters. However, if the treated wastewater is to be used for crop irrigation, then a 3-log unit pathogen reduction by treatment in anaerobic, facultative and single maturation ponds is required for both restricted and unrestricted irrigation, provided that, in the case of unrestricted irrigation, there are in place post-treatment health-protection control measures that together provide a further 4-log unit pathogen reduction.     

Canal networks as extended waste stabilization ponds: fate of pathogens in constructed waterways in Pathumthani Province, Thailand.

The occurrence and fate of surface water and wastewater pathogens (faecal coliforms, Escherichia coli, Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum) in two constructed waterways and a pond-based AIT wastewater treatment plant (AIT WWTP) in Pathumthani, Thailand were studied in the context of several biogeochemical factors and in relation to pollutional pressure and seasonal phenomena with a view to proposing potential mechanisms for their removal. More data on pathogen removal in a given local context would provide assurance that some pathogens could serve as suitable indicator organisms and predict removal of different pathogenic microorganisms such as protozoan parasites covered in this study. The enumeration technique for protozoan pathogens was improved in terms of application of emerging novel molecular technologies for the development of a fast but affordable microbiological method. Potential risk of waterborne disease outbreak in pertinent communities was then characterized using established infection probability models and the compiled pathogen occurrence data. Overall, we have addressed several strategic priorities of pathogen research in waste stabilization ponds in developing tropical countries like     

A risk-based approach to improve monitoring and performance of remote waste stabilisation ponds

A cost-effective risk-based system was developed for assessing the performance and potential environmental impact of a large number of geographically dispersed pond systems, where cost and logistical issues prevent direct monitoring. In the process, a range of risk functions were calculated for each site to take into account pond performance, receiving environment, influent quality, surrounding land use and system size. Pond performance was estimated using traditional design equations, including Monte Carlo analysis to account for uncertainty in boundary conditions. The calculation of combined risk functions for all systems enabled the quantitative ranking of systems, which can be used to prioritise limited sampling resources.     

Improving nitrogen reduction in waste stabilisation ponds.

This paper reviews the performance of two waste stablisation ponds (WSP) systems in the South Island of New Zealand that have been upgraded to multiple ponds-in-series to improve effluent quality. Results of monitoring are provided which show that it is possible to achieve relatively low ammonia (approximately 1 g/m3) and total nitrogen (approximately 10 g/m3) effluent concentrations through the use of nitrification filter beds (rock trickling filters) and sand filters. Evidence suggests that the nitrification and denitrification processes in the extra biofilm surface area provided by the rock filters or rock bank protection is primarily responsible for the improved effluent quality. The paper also compares the WSP results with effluent quality predicted by published formulae. It is concluded that these formulae do not reliably predict the performance of WSP systems and the development of universally applicable design guidelines would be useful.     

Seasonally loaded waste stabilisation ponds: a novel application for intermittent discharge

This research examined the use of a single facultative pond for treatment of an intermittent discharge from a UK campsite. The system was monitored over an 11-month period to determine the optimum time for discharge in terms of quality standards. The results showed that based on organic strength, discharge was possible in winter between November and March but February was the optimum to meet nutrient and suspended solids requirements. The pond showed rapid acclimatisation to the influent wastewater, with biochemical oxygen demand removal rates during the filling period of around 60 kg ha(-1) day(-1) and removal efficiencies of ～95% after maturation. The system proved simple to operate. A major design factor is the requirement for storage of net incoming precipitation, which may provide dilution of residual pollutants but requires additional system capacity.     

Nitrification in bulk water and biofilms of algae wastewater stabilization ponds.

Nitrogen removal in wastewater stabilization ponds is poorly understood and effluent monitoring data show a wide range of differences in ammonium. For effluent discharge into the environment, low levels of nitrogen are recommended. Nitrification is limiting in facultative wastewater stabilization ponds. The reason why nitrification is considered to be limiting is attributed to low growth rate and wash out of the nitrifiers. Therefore to maintain a population, attached growth is required. The aim of this research is to study the relative contribution of bulk water and biofilms with respect to nitrification. The hypothesis is that nitrification can be enhanced in stabilization ponds by increasing the surface area for nitrifier attachment. In order to achieve this, transparent pond reactors representing water columns in algae WSP have been used. To discriminate between bulk and biofilm activity, 5-day batch activity tests were carried out with bulk water and biofilm sampled. The observed value for Rnitrbulk was 2.7 x 10(-1) mg-N L(-1) d(-1) and for Rbiofilm was 1,495 mg-N m(-2) d(-1). During the 5 days of experiment with the biofilm, ammonia reduction was rapid on the first day. Therefore, a short-term biofilm activity test was performed to confirm this rapid decrease. Results revealed a nitrification rate, Rbiofilm, of 2,125 mg-N m(-2) d(-1) for the first 5 hours of the test, which is higher than the 1,495 mg-N m(-2) d(-1), observed on the first day of the 7-day biofilm activity test. Rbiofilm and Rnitrbulk values obtained in the batch activity tests were used as parameters in a mass balance model equation. The model was calibrated by adjusting the fraction of the pond volume and biofilm area that is active (i.e. aerobic). When assuming a depth of 0.08 m active upper layer, the model could describe well the measured effluent values for the pond reactors. The calibrated model was validated by predicting effluent Kjeldahl nitrogen of algae ponds in Palestine and Colombia. The model equation predicted well the effluent concentrations of ponds in Palestine.     

Investigating helminth eggs and Salmonella sp. in stabilization ponds treating septage.

Sludge management arises as a relevant problem after being accumulated in primary ponds of septage treatment plants. One of the most attractive options for sludge disposal is its use in agriculture and then specific guidelines regarding hygienic quality must be fulfilled. This study aimed at evaluating the storage time needed to inactivate Ascaris eggs and Salmonella in sludge accumulated in a primary pond treating septage. Raw septage exhibited very low concentrations of viable Ascaris eggs, thus experiments with Ascaris suum eggs spiking were conducted. The concentration of Ascaris eggs in the solids accumulated at the bottom of the pond was 20 eggs/g of total solids (g TS) at the time of pond closure. Although it decreased, some eggs remained viable (0.59 mean viable eggs/g TS) up to 20 months of in-pond storage of the biosolids. Salmonella survival was studied after developing an analytical method that inhibited the native flora. Sludge was seeded with Salmonella enteritidis. An equation adequately describing Salmonella die-off in biosolids subjected to 115 days of in-pond storage/dewatering, was found to be represented by the regression: y = log MPN Salmonella/g TS = 6.67 x t(-0.086), with t = storage time elapsed in days. The initial concentration was 7.0 x 10(6) MPN/g TS and the removal efficiency was 99%.     

Fate of endocrine disrupters in waste stabilization pond systems.

The performance in the removal of estrogenicity from wastewater was studied in three wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). Different treatment processes were evaluated: stabilization ponds and trickling filter. Sampling was performed from the input to the output of the treatment systems. The total estrogenic activity was determined with MCF-7-derived cell lines which express the endogenous estrogen receptor alpha. The two wastewater stabilization ponds with long retention time had high removal of estrogenicity (90% to 95%). Trickling filters despite being effective at removing organic load were less effective in removing estrogenicity (42%), and post tertiary ponds enhanced estrogenicity removal.     

Influence of annual climate variability on design and operation of waste stabilisation ponds for continental climates.

WSPs are widely used in North America, and offer huge potential for other continental climate regions. The standard design and operating protocol is robust even at high latitudes, but may be conservative elsewhere. A simple model based on first-order kinetics for biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) is used to consider some alternative design and operating protocols, using long-term daily climate records for cities across continental central Asia. Options include changing the discharge period; retaining treated water in the pond over the winter; and changing the facultative pond loading. Annual variability in climate parameters has a major effect, in particular on the date at which treated wastewater meets appropriate standards for discharge or re-use: the earlier the discharge, the greater the variability in effluent quality. Skilful management of these systems may therefore be required to maximise their performance. While current models require development, it is clear modelling could provide tools and guidelines that would allow the design of continental climate WSP to be tailored to specific regional and local climate conditions.     

Twenty years' monitoring of Mèze stabilisation ponds: part II--Removal of faecal indicators.

The WSP system serving Mèze and Poussan (French Mediterranean coast) was constructed in 1980 and enlarged and upgraded from 1994 to 1998. Water quality along the waste stabilisation pond to (WSP) system has been monitored over the years, thus allowing us to assess the influence of enlargement and upgrading works. A significant enhancement of the average microbiological quality of the effluent was observed, with respective E. coli and streptococci average abatements of 4.1 and 3.4 log. units. Former seasonal variations of microbiological removal have vanished. The contribution of the different ponds to the disinfection performance of the WSP system was analysed. A microbiological quality model was proposed to evaluate the die-off kinetics related to the different ponds and as a tool for the design and management of WSP systems. Though the relationships between die-off coefficients and environmental factors appeared somewhat frail, this modelling is considered a promising approach for the prediction of WSP microbiological performance.     

Three dimensional fluorescent spectroscopy analysis for the evaluation of organic matter removal from industrial estate wastewater by stabilization ponds.

The fluorescent excitation emission matrix (FEEM) was utilized to evaluate the removal of organic matter by stabilization ponds, which consist of aeration, facultative, and oxidation ponds of a central wastewater treatment plant of an industrial estate in northern Thailand. The result shows that six fluorescent peaks of influent wastewater and effluent water after aeration, facultative, and oxidation ponds were detected from the FEEMs at 230 nmEx/295 nmEm (A), 275 nmEx/300 nmEm (B), 240 nmEx/355 nmEm (C), 280 nmEx/355 nmEm (D), 275 nmEx/410 nmEm (E) and 330 nmEx/410 nmEm (F). The putative origins of peaks A and B, C and D, and E and F were tyrosine-like, tryptophan-like, and humic and fulvic acid-like substances, respectively. The aeration pond was the main course of action used to reduce the tyrosine-like substances at peaks A and B by 88 and 52%, respectively, and tryptophan-like substances at peaks C and D by 43 and 39%, respectively. There was only a 20 per cent decrease of humic and fulvic acid-like substances at peak E and an 18 per cent decrease at peak F through the use of aeration ponds. Total per cent reductions of total fluorescent organic matter after aeration ponds; facultative ponds; and oxidation ponds were 46, 51 and 54%, respectively. These values were notably similar to the total percent reduction of DOC by the same respective processes at 54, 53, and 55%.     

Twenty years' monitoring of Mèze stabilisation ponds: part I--Removal of organic matter and nutrients.

The Mèze stabilisation pond system has been monitored over more than 20 years. Despite the enlargement of the plant, the organic load doubled between the early 1980s and recent years, the removal of organic matter and nutrients has been maintained at the same level for COD and increased for BOD5, N and P. Combining anaerobic, step-fed aerated and maturation ponds and multiplying the number of cells resulted in a significant improvement in the performances of the plant. Respectively 34, 24 and 23% of the applied COD was eliminated in the anaerobic, the step-fed and the first three maturation ponds, while the figures for BOD5 were 47, 26, and 19% respectively. 38% of the applied nitrogen was eliminated in the first three maturation ponds. Nitrification and denitrification seem to be a major process of nitrogen removal in warm periods. Most of the phosphorus removal was observed to take place in the two polishing ponds.     

“建筑废弃物资源化”的现状与建议

目前,中国建筑废弃物资源化技术水平在部分行业或局部地域已位于国际领先行列。伴随全球发展中国家与中国内地乡镇及边远地区基础建设的迅猛发展,建筑废弃物资源化带动的＂静脉产业＂之类别的不断涌现,建筑废弃物资源化工作应从其产出源头即建设、设计、施工三方落实,实施中充分发挥政府、监理的检查监督作用,发挥有关强制性标准及政府优惠扶持性政策作用。建立健全有关建筑废弃物的分类标准等法规。使建筑废弃物的处理＂六化＂,即资源化、减量化、无害化、回收再生规范化、资源产业化、产业规模化真正实现。     

Algal growth response and survival in a range of light and temperature conditions: implications for non-steady-state conditions in waste stabilisation ponds.

Growth and physiological experiments were carried out using Scenedesmus subspicatus and Chlorella vulgaris as representative species typically found in waste stabilisation ponds. These experiments were designed to test the ability of the organisms to survive and grow under a range of different temperatures and light intensities that might occur in mid to high latitude regions. Growth was assessed using optical density and photosynthetic rate for a combination of temperatures of 5, 10, 15 and 20 degrees C at light intensities of 7.8, 15.7, 31.3, 47, 62.7 and 78.3 micromolm(-2) sec(-1). C. vulgaris had a higher rate of growth and photosynthetic activity than S. subspicatus at low temperatures but had reached its maximum growth rate at 15 degrees C. S. subspicatus showed a higher growth rate than C. vulgaris at higher temperatures, and did not achieve its maximum growth rate over the range of temperatures studied. For both species light was not limiting to growth above 47 micromol m(-2) sec(-1). Survival of the two species under dark conditions was tested at 4 degrees C and - 20 degrees C using direct plating and growth tests. C. vulgaris was able to survive at 4 degrees C for a much longer period than S. subspicatus and a portion of the population was able survive - 20 degrees C. The different responses of the two species to dark and cold conditions are indicative of the range that may occur across a wider population, and show why in practice some species may appear earlier and compete more effectively in early spring but then lose advantage as the temperature and light intensity increases into the summer.     

The potential for facilitating spring discharge from continental climate waste stabilisation ponds by carry-over of treated wastewater: concepts and experimental findings.

The research investigated some factors influencing the rate of stabilisation of wastewater in the spring period in continental climate waste stabilisation ponds, and in particular the potential for bringing forward the discharge date by optimising storage capacity and dilution. Experiments using pilot and modelscale ponds were set up in Almaty, Kazakhstan. These simulated operating regimes for a facultative and storage/maturation pond system subject to ice cover from late November until late March. Two pilot-scale facultative ponds were operated at hydraulic retention times (HRT) of 20 and 30 days, with surface loading rates of 100 and 67 kg BOD ha(-1) day(-1). Effluent from the 20-day HRT facultative pond was then fed to two pilot-scale storage/maturation ponds which had been partially emptied and allowed to refill over the winter period with no removal of effluent. The paper discusses the results of the experiments with respect to selection of an operating regime to make treated wastewater available early in the spring. Preliminary results indicate that there may be potential for alternative operating protocols designed to maximise their performance and economic potential.     

CFD (computational fluid dynamics) modelling of baffles for optimizing tropical waste stabilization pond systems.

CFD modelling of the incorporation of two baffles equally spaced along the longitudinal axis of the pond and with a length equal to 70% of the pond breadth, indicated a potential improvement in the removal of E. coli in a 4-day secondary facultative pond at 25degrees C from 5 x 10(6) per 100 ml in the effluent from a 1-day anaerobic pond to 4 x 10(4) per 100 ml; the reduction in an un-baffled pond was an order of magnitude less effective. The addition of a similarly baffled 4-day primary maturation pond reduced the effluent E. coli count to 340 per 100 ml; the reduction in an un-baffled series was two orders of magnitude less effective. Well designed baffles thus have considerable potential for reducing pond area requirements and hence costs in the hot tropics. These very promising results highlight the need for field studies on baffled pond systems to validate (or allow calibration) of the CFD model used in this study.