Policy transfer and the introduction of road pricing in Valletta,Malta

Charging motorists to pay for driving at times and/or in places where there is insufficient capacity to meet the level of demand has long been recognised by transport economists as an efficient way to address traffic congestion. However, only a few locations have actually decided to use this mechanism, with Valletta one of the more recent cities to introduce such a scheme. This paper aims to present a case study of road pricing in Valletta and the role played by policy transfer in its introduction. To do this, it applies data gathered from existing literature, in-depth interviews and direct observation with those involved in the policy development. Experience of road pricing was gained from London, Durham, Edinburgh and Stockholm. One of the major barriers to policy transfer was felt to be the unique geography of the island however international events, local conditions and a political champion driving change were critical factors to the successful implementation of the road pricing scheme. Policy transfer was deemed useful in terms of policy development, relations with stakeholders, scheme design and administrative approaches. This paper concludes by identifying the contributions of the case study of Valletta to the policy transfer literature.     

Lessons from travel planning and road user charging for policy-making: through imperfection to implementation

In 1978 Gunn published a seminal paper which explained why implementation of policy is so difficult. The paper set out 10 conditions, which should be satisfied if perfect implementation is to be achieved. Whilst it is clear that perfect implementation is not possible in the real world, and Gunn has subsequently been criticised for his ‘top-down’ approach to decision-making, these conditions do, nonetheless act as an effective framework through which to evaluate good practice in the implementation of urban transport policy instruments. Two urban transport policy instruments, which form an increasingly important element of the Government's strategy in the UK for reducing the demand for private transport as set out in a New Deal for Transport (DETR, 1998), are travel plans and road user charging. Travel plans are a relatively recent policy instrument in the UK and seek to reduce trips to work by car by providing, through individual employers, a targeted, integrated package of incentives and disincentives to influence commuters' choice of mode of travel to and from the workplace. Road user charging, whereby motorists are charged for the road space they use in urban areas, seeks to reduce the congestion problem via the price mechanism, and has a longer history in the UK. To date the implementation of travel plans in the UK has been more widespread than that of road user charging. It is fair to say, however, that the widespread implementation of both urban transport policy instruments is a complex and sensitive area for decision-makers.The aim of this paper is firstly, to analyse travel plans and road user charging in the UK with respect to the conditions for perfect implementation put forward by Gunn and secondly, to highlight the elements of good practice, pertinent to the implementation of road user charging, in the process of the implementation of travel plans. Overall, the paper uses Gunn's theoretical framework as a basis for recommendations for better decision-making that will aid the wider implementation of both travel plans and road user charging internationally.     

Optimizing the benefits of urban road user charging

Traffic congestion is a feature of most modern cities but attempts to control it or limit its effects have met with only modest success. There is significant and continuing interest in the concept of charging city vehicle users, although apart from the use of parking charges actual operational schemes are few and far between. In this paper, we compare three alternative charging policies using a simplified model of travel demand and supply, which we combine with cost benefit techniques. The charging policies are area-based charging in which users pay to locate in or enter an area, terminal-charging based on supplementary parking fees in residential and non-residential locations and distance-based charging which is a charge related to how far users travel. The model allows for behavioural effects resulting from trip diversion and demand suppression, as well as capacity restraint (speed-flow feedback effects based on limited route capacity). In the case study, we parameterize the model using data and geographical dimensions based on London. We show that area based charging delivers the least benefits whilst a hybrid policy based on terminal and distance-based charges delivers the most. Because it is of topical interest, we compare our results and predictions with the Mayor's strategy for London, which is an area-based scheme. We conclude that the revenue generated using a hybrid policy would be as great as for an area based scheme whilst at the same time delivering substantially greater benefits to road users in terms of travel time and other savings.     

Achieving genuinely dynamic road user charging: issues with a GNSS-based approach

A variety of approaches to road user charging (RUC) for reducing congestion and raising revenue to maintain and improve transport infrastructure is in place in many countries; examples of such RUC include: an Electronic Fee Collection System in Singapore, Cordon Pricing in Oslo City in Norway, Zoned Based Pricing in London and Distance-Based Pricing (also called Pay-As-You-Drive) in Germany and Switzerland. With the development of satellite technologies, the introduction of dynamic pricing becomes possible, affording an opportunity for RUC to fully reflect the ‘Polluter Pays Principle’. This paper provides critical and comparative assessments of existing road user charging (RUC) systems with reference to technological limitations and public and political acceptability. The paper then goes on to demonstrate a system architecture for a Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) based dynamic road user charging system capable of considering dynamic variables. Finally we consider the feasibility of the proposed system in relation to technology readiness and public acceptability. We then consider some potential wider benefits from the introduction of a comprehensive system that could be highlighted to justify the cost of development and implementation as well as to improve public and political acceptability. The paper ends with conclusions and future research directions.     

A socio-economic assessment of proposed road user charging schemes in Copenhagen

Road pricing, congestion charging, toll-systems and other road charging instruments are intensively discussed in many countries. Although many partial analyses of the consequences have been published, few overall socio-economic analyses have been carried out. The article presents such a socio-economic analysis of four different proposed road pricing schemes for the Copenhagen area. The purpose was to assess all benefits and costs involved, including impacts on traffic and environment, maintenance and financing costs as well as tax distortion effects. It was concluded that the socio-economic surplus of the projects depends crucially on the congestion level. With the current traffic level, road pricing will not yet be socially expedient in Copenhagen. However, if the opening year is postponed to 2015, the two most favourable schemes will turn positive. The analyses also showed that the magnitude of demand response by introducing road pricing is likely to have significant impact on the project surplus. This is an important observation because most short-term driven traffic models will then underestimate the projected surplus. Finally, it was found that the degree to which benefits outweigh costs depends considerably on the use of revenue. Although it may contribute to decreasing road congestion, recycling all of the revenue back to the transport sector turned out to be inefficient and costly.     

The impact of transport on social exclusion processes with specific emphasis on road user charging

This paper looks at the ways in which transport can impact on social exclusion processes by examining how the introduction of road user charging may affect residents of Bristol. It gives an overview of the concept of transport and social inclusion/exclusion, describes key themes emerging from DfT-funded research conducted in the city and reflects on the importance of consideration of these themes to the policy's successful implementation. By exploring road user charging from both collective and individual perspectives, the paper illustrates how this congestion charging policy could promote social inclusion.     

The impact of user heterogeneity on road franchising

A model is presented for analyzing Pareto-efficient build-operate-transfer toll road contracts. The formulation simultaneously allows maximizing social welfare and private profit when road users vary in their value-of-time (VOT). The failure rate and mean residual functions of the VOT distribution are used to characterize Pareto-efficient solutions. Service quality, measured in terms of the volume-to-capacity ratio, is shown to be better than, identical to, or lower than the socially optimal level depending on the curvature of the mean residual VOT function. The outcomes of various regulatory regimes are examined as well.     

New regional aviation policy in India: Early indicators and lessons learnt

In this article, we study the new regional aviation policy of India along with data collected on the performance of the scheme since its introduction in 2016. The scheme has multiple objectives. First, it wants to increase footprints of civil aviation to unserved and underserved airports of India. Second, it intends to make flying more affordable. It comes out, the aviation market in the country has expanded due to the addition of new routes under the scheme but data indicates that there is a regional imbalance in the performance of the scheme. Moreover, there are still questions on the long term sustainability of many routes and finding a solution for neglect of some priority regions. We have identified economic and commercial challenges that need to be addressed for the program to achieve its goals. The insights gathered during the study can be generalized and policy makers and managers of remote area air-connectivity schemes of different countries should find them useful.     

Road user charging and business performance: identifying the processes of economic change

This paper presents the results of a survey of specialist knowledge concerning the processes of economic change that could impact business performance in city centres surrounded by road user charging cordons. The responses to charging operate in a complex and cyclical process, but the general trajectory and pattern of impacts show that charging with hypothecation may in the longer term enhance business performance in city centres. However, an overriding concern is how long it will take before the improvements reach their full effect. A number of key issues are identified for implementation of charging interventions including the need for greater awareness of the concerns of the business community, and their involvement in the planning process.     

Context sensitive multimodal road planning: a case study in Cape Town, South Africa

Road planning practice relies almost exclusively on parameters related to traffic factors, such as private vehicle speeds and volumes. In many developing countries the requirements for public transport and non-motorised transport are not explicitly integrated into the planning process, despite the fact that these form the primary mode of transport for the majority of the population. This affects the mobility opportunities for these sectors of the population and contributes to poor road safety, especially with regards to pedestrians. The research outlined in the paper posits that, in order to assess the usage and needs of the road holistically, other factors related to the adjacent land uses, socio-economic characteristics of the population the road serves, and the environmental context within which the road is located, factors heavily in how the road is used and should, therefore, be considered within the planning process. The paper describes a methodology to include these factors in the planning of roads. The method attempts to prioritise amongst the five primary road based modes (public transport, car, freight, walking and cycling) based upon a combination of traffic and non-traffic factors. The method employed uses a geographic information system (GIS) based spatial multiple criteria evaluation (SMCE) model with inputs from widely available data sources such as census, household travel surveys, land use and environmental data to arrive at solutions for modal priorities. A case study is conducted along an arterial route in Cape Town, South Africa, providing infrastructure planning recommendations and audit possibilities for the future. Since weighting is an important driver in the SMCE process, a sensitivity analysis is conducted to investigate the effect of alternative weighting schemes on the outputs from the method.     

The baggage system at Denver: prospects and lessons

This article discusses the fundamental design difficulties of the fully automated baggage system originally planned for the New Denver Airport, and their implications for airport and airline management. Theory, industrial experience, and the reality at Denver emphasize the difficulty of achieving acceptable standards of performance when novel, complex systems are operating near capacity. United Airlines will thus make the Denver system ‘work’ by drastically reducing its complexity and performance. Automated baggage systems are risky. Airlines and airports considering their use should assess their design cautiously and far in advance, and install redundant, supplemental systems from the start.     

The role of road safety in a sustainable urban mobility: An econometric assessment of the Spanish NUTS-3 case

There has been a structural change in mobility in major Spanish cities in recent decades, with a switch to the pattern followed in other countries in the area. A shift has taken place from a traditional Mediterranean model to a North American city stereotype, with uncontrolled motorization and major implications for public health. This article specifically analyzes negative road safety-related externalities that result from this process, given that the trend seems to show a steady decline in road safety accidents on urban roads in Spain, with major differences among NUTS-3 provinces. The objective is to evaluate the factors that empirically explain these differences for the 2003–2013 period using a panel data analysis. Results show that a key role is played by urban development variables, such as population density and improvements in health services, with advances linked to more accessible and sustainable urban transportation, such as the Smart City concept. Not only does this article close a gap in the literature, but the findings can also serve as a practical guide for the development and implementation of urban mobility and road safety plans, and reveals the special needs of the most vulnerable groups.     

The capability of Motorways of the Sea of being competitive against road transport. The case of the Italian mainland and Sicily

The paper deals with a quantitative analysis on the competitiveness of intermodal transport, based on Motorways of the Sea (MoS), in comparison with all-road transport. This analysis is applied to MoS routes connecting the Italian mainland with Sicily. The study involves: a detailed intermodal network model which compares monetary costs and travel times from all relevant origins in the mainland to all relevant destinations in Sicily; and a survey carried out at some representative trucking firms operating to/from Sicily. The aim of the interviews has been: on one side to make a comparison between the theoretical and actual mode of transport and routes taken, and in case they are different, to understand the reasons of the discrepancy; on the other side to determine what are the main aspects taken into account by trucking companies in their modal choice, in order to understand how the competiveness of MoS against road transport can be improved. The results of the analysis show that the modal choice is affected by several elements: monetary costs and travel times; reliability of MoS routes; availability of MoS routes; MoS routes frequencies; but it resulted from the interviews that monetary costs and travel times are the most important factors considered by trucking companies in the modal and route choice. This study has also shown that an improvement of MoS routes on the Italian Adriatic side is necessary: actually, a strong reason for which in Italy MoS traffic is still a small percentage of road traffic is the low number of MoS routes currently in operation and their low frequency. This analysis could help decision makers, and maritime operators, to efficiently invest in the improvement of MoS routes. Moreover, this analysis, developed for an Italian case study, can be applied to other European and Mediterranean scenarios.     

Joint implementation of tradable credit and road pricing in public-private partnership networks considering mixed equilibrium behaviors

This paper investigates joint road charging schemes in a public-private partnership (PPP) network by simultaneously taking into account Cournot-Nash (CN) players and user equilibrium (UE) players. Each joint scheme comprises a tradable credit plan for public roads and a regular tolling plan for private roads. We show that, under UE-CN mixed equilibrium, there exist anonymous nonnegative joint schemes that can support a system optimum link flow pattern. By using preemptive approach, we further design three bi-objective optimization models with hybrid implementation of tradable credit and road pricing. Numerical examples demonstrate that the proposed methods are effective in managing PPP networks.     

The rolling road between the Italian and French Alps: modeling the modal split

A proposal for evaluating the attractiveness of the first European ro–ro service based on traditional bogies is presented, to estimate to what extent its realization is able to influence distribution of freight transport, between the traditional road transport and the new alternative available, through the specification and calibration of a modal split model (Logit), based on random utility theory. For the scenarios analyzed, the model estimates that nearly 4% of the total shipments would use the ro–ro service, when its frequency is four journeys per day, and about 9%, in the case of increased frequency to ten.     

Supply chain leading models of building charging stations: Leaders,subsidy policies,and cost sharing

Consumer willingness to pay for electric vehicles (EVs) is severely limited by their driving range. The expansion of a charging network could alleviate this dilemma. This paper focuses on determining whether the manufacturer or the dealer is more suitable to extend charging network. In scenario 1 (wholesale price is exogenous), M-Investing (the manufacturer invests on charging stations) better facilitates EV adoption at the early stage of EV market. By contrast, D-Investing (the dealer invests on charging stations) better facilitates the EV adoption when the market becomes mature. However, neither of the two investors have an incentive to offer building investment. In scenario 2 (wholesale price is a decision made by the manufacturer), M-Investing is consistently better than D-Investing in terms of facilitating EV adoption. The manufacturer is voluntary even with high building costs. In addition, we address two subsidy policies: producer subsidy and consumer subsidy, to determine which is more effective in facilitating EV adoption in M-Investing and D-Investing, respectively. Moreover, we extend our model by allowing cost sharing between the manufacturer and the dealer. We observe some cases in which the profit and the EV adoption level are improved.     

Are individual preferences always a legitimate basis for evaluating the costs and benefits of public policy?: The case of road traffic law enforcement

This paper discusses if it is appropriate to include the benefits that offenders get by violating the law in cost-benefit analyses of police enforcement, in the form of a loss of benefits from violations. The discussion is cast in the context of traffic law violations, a very common type of crime, which is usually not very strongly condemned from a moral point of view. Three options for cost-benefit analysis of traffic police enforcement are compared. The three options differ with respect to the treatment of (a) violator benefits from violations, and (b) outlays for traffic tickets given to violators. The implications of the choice of option are shown by means of four case illustrations, all referring to different types of traffic police enforcement in Norway. It is shown that every type of enforcement becomes less cost-effective when violator benefits are included in cost-benefit analyses. The legitimacy of including violator benefits as a benefit to society is discussed. It is concluded that, as far as traffic violations are concerned, benefits obtained by committing violations of the law cannot be treated as a legitimate societal benefit.     

The evolution of backpacker destinations: the case of Zipolite,Mexico

Despite the growing literature on backpacker tourism, little is known about the evolutionary patterns of the places that cater to such travellers. This paper analyses, first, the way in which established and current models of tourist development conceptualise backpackers and their destinations. In addition, it offers some specific suggestions that will allow them to explain the evolution of backpacker destinations in a more detailed manner. Then, results of field research conducted at Mexico's largest backpacker resort are presented, to illustrate its particular socio‐spatial evolution. The paper concludes that, when fuelled by an increasing number of arrivals and a growing demand for comforts, what were once drifter‐dominated peripheral places may evolve gradually into well‐established ‘resorts’ that satisfy contemporary backpackers' demands for infrastructure, natural settings and ambience. Developer‐tourists with an affinity to backpacker culture are likely to become key actors as they come to gain control over land use and local economic development. Copyright © 2007 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Analysis of the effect of charging infrastructure design on electric taxi driving profiles: A case study approach on the example of Singapore

Replacing conventional vehicle taxis with electric vehicles would be an efficient measure to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Due to the limited range and long charging times of current battery electric vehicles, it is of utmost importance to provide sufficient charging facilities. This article analyses the impact of the placement and charging power of charging stations on potential mileage and revenue of electric taxis on the example of Singapore. Therefore, we developed an agent-based electric taxi simulation model to investigate electric taxis’ driving profiles with respect to different vehicle types and charging infrastructure designs. This model is also capable of simulating conventional taxi driving profiles. The validation of these simulation results with real taxi data showed that the model is reproducing taxi driving profiles with high accuracy in great detail. We found out that electric taxis could reach the same mileage and revenue as conventional taxis if charging with a power of 160?kW is possible. Furthermore, we discovered that waiting times for available charging stations have a stronger effect on revenue than the length of detours to reach charging stations. Based on these findings, we concluded that it is more important to reduce waiting times by placing sufficient numbers of charging stations at each location before expanding the charging network by installing small numbers of charging stations at many locations.