Comparing distance,time, and metabolic energy cost functions for walking accessibility in infrastructure-poor regions

Accessibility is a widely used concept in transportation planning and research. However a majority of the literature is concerned with accessibility in infrastructure-rich regions where it is used to assess the output of infrastructure. Relatively scant attention in contrast has been paid to the topic of accessibility in infrastructure-poor regions. These are regions characterized by non-homogeneous landscapes with limited or no transportation infrastructure. Even studies that deal with infrastructure-poor regions tend to transpose the methods used elsewhere. This practice seems inappropriate when mobility happens by active rather than motorized modes since the effort required for movement is likely different. The objective of this paper is to compare distance, time, and metabolic energy cost functions in walking accessibility. To this end, we present a case study of accessibility to water in central Kenya. The results indicate that Euclidean distance, surface distance, and travel time correlate better between them than any of them does with metabolic energy. Furthermore, while shortest paths tend to be symmetric for distance and time criteria, under consideration of metabolic energy expenditure pathways change significantly depending on the direction of movement. This has implications for measuring accessibility and equity. By providing alternate mechanisms for valuing the cost of movement, this research suggests avenues to consider vulnerable populations, such as pregnant women who require greater nutritional intake and expend more energy per unit activity. Directions for further research include certain trade-offs between route choice variables across various applications, for example, walking and cycling route choice algorithms.     

Impacts of high-speed rail on the inequality of intercity accessibility: A case study of Liaoning Province,China

The rapid development of Chinese high-speed rail (HSR) not only improves the convenience of daily transportation, but also promotes the regional economy of cities along the HSR lines. Accessibility improvement and spatial inequality reduction caused by HSR would play a positive role in transportation development projects appraisal and help achieve the regional coordinated development. Our purpose is to assess how much improvement of economic potential accessibility can each city get from the HSR based on the existing highway and HSR networks, as well as the changes in spatial disparity and accessibility distribution patterns. Taking Liaoning Province as a case, this paper studies the spatial pattern and inequality of accessibility in two intercity transportation scenarios using a gravity-based model. The sensitivity analysis of the parameter and the test of different mass indicators are also conducted. The results show that cities in the central areas have better accessibility than peripheral areas. Cities in the peripheral areas and near the HSR lines tend to benefit more from HSR. The inequality of accessibility decreases a lot in cities with HSR access but only has a minor reduction on a whole scale.     

Population growth,accessibility spillovers and persistent borders: Historical growth in West-European municipalities

Lack of cross-border transport supply has repeatedly been blamed for the fact that national borders limit spatial interaction and, consequently, the growth of border regions. This study applies an accessibility approach to investigate for most municipalities in ten countries in mainland West Europe if foreign transport supply is lagging behind, and if population growth in these municipalities has been affected by the limits that national borders have imposed on market access. To do so, data describing historical population changes and road networks between 1961 and 2011 have been used. The results show that in the study area, cross-border transport accessibility was not at a disadvantage in 1961 and has since then grown even more than domestic accessibility. However, municipal population growth has depended almost exclusively on domestic market access. Processes of economic international integration in the study area are found to coincide with the growth of cross-border accessibility, but do not have a clear coincidence with the effects of cross-border accessibility on population growth.     

Streetcar projects as spatial planning: A shift in transport planning in the United States

Currently dozens of U.S. cities are in the midst of planning and building modern streetcar systems. Though seemingly mobility investments, the intended impacts of these streetcar projects reach beyond transportation and represent a strong turn toward strategic spatial planning through transportation infrastructure. Proponents of modern streetcars argue that they are tools of placemaking as much as if not more than improvements for transit services. Unlike transit investments of a century ago, when privately operated streetcars were a decentralizing force that helped disperse overcrowded central city cores and open new land for real estate development, current streetcar projects in the United States are expected to concentrate activity and economic development in select corridors. The majority of these new systems rely on transit technologies that are significantly improved over the carriages of old, with modern features, smooth rides and quiet operations. Yet for all the improvements to the vehicles and services, new streetcar investments no longer primarily improve transit accessibility. Rather, modern streetcars are part of strategic amenity packages cities use to achieve real estate and economic development goals. This use of transportation infrastructure as an amenity for a particular location is a shift away from traditional transportation planning processes, and the expected benefits, in particular, stand apart as being deliberately spatial. We use planning documents and data from ballot box initiatives to evaluate expected transportation benefits relative to indirect benefits through economic development. We find that approximately three-quarters of all expected benefits from streetcar projects accrue to property development with the remaining expected benefits assigned to transportation. However, we do not find sufficient empirical evidence in the literature to support such certain claims of positive effects on property values and the built environment. We argue that the increasing tendency of cities to leverage streetcar projects for non-transportation purposes represents a turn to the use of infrastructure as a tool of spatial planning.     

The European high-speed train network: Predicted effects on accessibility patterns

The principal aim of this paper is to evaluate the impact of the future European high-speed train network on accessibility, by reducing time distance between places and modifying their relative location. We compare the current situation with that foreseen for the year 2010, according to the Outline Plan of the European High-Speed Train Network, in order to analyse which areas will most benefit from construction and improvement of the infrastructure. It is hypothesized that the high-speed train will certainly bring the peripheral regions closer to the central ones, but will also increase imbalances between the main cities and their hinterlands. A weighted average distance indicator is applied for this purpose. This measure identifies the spatial distribution of accessibility in the area of study, emphasizing the infrastructure effects, and locates accessibility changes at the European level. A Geographic Information System (GIS) has been used to carry out this study.     

Measuring the effect of transportation infrastructure on retail firm co-location patterns

This paper studies the effects of transportation infrastructure on the location behavior of competing retail firms. First, in a game theoretic framework that describes the location choices made by retailers with respect to each other, the connection between relative firm location and transportation demand is outlined. Second, a multivariate point pattern statistic based on this theoretical framework is applied to location patterns of fast food outlets to measure the effects that major road infrastructure has on firm location behavior in this sector.The results suggest that transportation infrastructure affects the location behavior of firms with respect to their location in relation to their competitors. Access to important transportation infrastructure induces competing outlets to locate next to each other—a tendency not necessarily observed among outlets without such access. Theoretically, this does not only affect economic outcomes, but also travel demand and consumer accessibility. The findings from this study stress the importance of accounting for how transportation infrastructure changes the location behavior of firms in travel demand frameworks.     

A GIS-based spatial statistical approach to modeling job accessibility by transportation mode: case study of Columbus,Ohio

Improving job accessibility based on transport connectivity helps to address equity issues. Spatial autocorrelation (SA) is also a focus of interest in transportation planning, but has been neglected in analyzing job accessibility in metropolitan areas. In this study, GIS-based job accessibilities by walking, transit, and car are computed for the metropolitan area of Columbus, Ohio, and three transport-based spatial autoregressive (SAR) models are estimated to account for the SA of job accessibility among neighboring block groups, while controlling for built-environment and socioeconomic factors. SA intensities and extents are compared in order to better understand local spatial clusters of job accessibility across the region. Direct and indirect spillover effects due to an investment change in transportation facilities are estimated and provide important transportation planning information. The results also show that walking-accessed jobs are primarily related to physical settings (e.g., land uses) at the local level. Locations with a higher share of zero-vehicle housing units have better job accessibility by transit. There is a spatial mismatch between Asian population clusters and transit-accessed jobs, possibly because of the car-oriented residential clusters around Honda of America Manufacturing in suburban areas. More importantly, locations with a higher share of single-parent households are at a disadvantage in overall job accessibility. Due to its complex transportation needs, a society friendly to single parents should spatially integrate accessible jobs with other needed activities via land-use and transportation planning. Alternatively, car-ownership programs and non-spatial social supports also might be effective to help secure job opportunities and perform daily life activities.     

The role of transportation accessibility in regional economic resilience

Whereas the importance of transportation for economic growth is widely acknowledged, past studies on the resilience of regions to economic shocks have not given explicit attention to the role of transportation accessibility on building robust regional economies. This exploratory study examines the regional performance in six U.S. states during the last recession (2008–2009) and post-recession (2010–2014) and evaluates its association with the transportation infrastructure. To account for spatial dependence and interactions, a exploratory spatial data analysis (ESDA), a global spatial autoregressive model, and a local Geographically Weighted Regression (GWR) are employed. Results show that, after controlling for other key aspects of resilience, such as industrial diversity and human capital, the global relationships between rail density, access to intermodal services, and access to local and regional markets were positively associated with regional performance (measured as competitive effect) during the recession. Similarly, positive regional performance before the recession period was associated with positive performance during the recession. The local spatial analysis, however, shows that the associations between the explanatory variables and regional performance vary significantly across space. The analysis and results of this study can contribute to a better understanding of the complex interactions between economic resilience and transportation infrastructure, and guide the development of policies and practices designed to strengthen the ability of regions to be resilient to economic shocks.     

On another track: Differing views of experts and politicians on rail investments in peripheral localities

Israeli politicians strongly support inter-urban rail investment and network development connecting peripheral localities, while transport experts voice criticism and oppose many of the planned investments. This study focuses on the lacuna in transportation scholarship regarding elected officials' expectations from rail investment in peripheral areas and its potential to reduce spatial disparities, stressing that there is little research effort to reveal the reasoning of politicians when promoting transport investment and the extent to which some of the political considerations may reflect an authentic representation of public sentiments.First, an explorative qualitative study was conducted, using multiple data sets, including 12 in-depth interviews with elected officials and transport decision makers, newspaper articles, and professional documents. Analysis identified four main themes with conflicting perspectives between transport experts and politicians: Marginal vis-a-vis revolutionary effects; daily vis-a-vis less frequent activities; transport link vis-a-vis emotional link and social justice vis-a-vis social commitment. These themes reflect the tension between the discourse of accessibility led by experts and the implied discourse of mobility by politicians.The second stage was based on a large scale survey of 2008 respondents from peripheral and central localities in Israel, aimed at revealing public beliefs and preferences regarding rail investment in peripheral localities.Results showed that differences of opinion between experts and politicians do not stem only from political bias or irrelevant interests but reflect experts' inability to consider benefits that are appreciated by both politicians and the general public. The study also draws attention to different approaches to the goals of transportation systems. While the dominant voice in scholarly discourse considers accessibility gains as the main goal of transport policy, both elected politicians and residents from peripheral localities also appreciate mobility gains.     

Evaluating the European added value of TEN-T projects: a methodological proposal based on spatial spillovers, accessibility and GIS

This paper develops a methodology for calculating the European value added value (EVA) generated by transport infrastructure projects. This approach is particularly useful for evaluating projects in the framework of Trans-European Transport Networks (TEN-T), although it may also be used in trans-national projects in other geographical areas. The methodology is based on the appraisal of spatial spillovers generated by trans-national projects by using accessibility indicators (access to markets) and Geographical Information Systems (GIS). Projects are split into sections and spillover effects of each section are then computed. The sections that produce a high proportion of spillovers in relation to internal benefits generate a high EVA. Additionally, indicators are obtained of the effects of each section in terms of spatial concentration on the different countries affected, efficiency (general improvement in accessibility) and territorial cohesion (reduction in accessibility disparities between regions). The validity of this approach is verified by applying it to TEN-T priority project 25. This methodology does not seek to replace existing project appraisal methodologies (particularly the cost-benefit analysis); rather it provides complementary data for decision-making. Sections which are scarcely profitable from the cost-benefit analysis perspective but which have high European value added should receive more European funding than more profitable sections of markedly national interest.     

Examining the influence of stop level infrastructure and built environment on bus ridership in Montreal

We studied transit ridership from the perspective of the transit provider, with the objective of quantifying the influence of transit system operational attributes, transportation system infrastructure attributes and built environment attributes on the disaggregate stop level boardings and alightings by time of day for the bus transit system in the Montreal region. A Composite Marginal Likelihood (CML) based ordered response probit (ORP) model, that simultaneously allows us to incorporate the influence of exogenous variables and potential correlations between boardings and alightings across multiple time periods of the day is employed. Our results indicate that headway affects ridership negatively, while the presence of public transportation around the stop has a positive and significant effect. Moreover, parks, commercial enterprises, and residential area, amongst others, have various effects across the day on boardings and alightings at bus stops. An elasticity analysis provides useful insights. Specifically, we observe that the most effective way to increase ridership is to increase public transport service and accessibility, whereas enhancements to land use have a smaller effect on ridership. The framework from our analysis provides transit agencies a mechanism to study the influence of transit accessibility, transit connectivity, transit schedule alterations (to increase/reduce headway), and land-use pattern changes on ridership.     

Accessibility gains and road transport infrastructure in Spain: A productivity approach based on the Malmquist index

Accessibility, the relative access to markets, is a strategic concept in all economic models with a spatial dimension and its prominence has been acknowledged in many economic research fields and policy debates. This paper is based on the assumption that infrastructure drives economic accessibility and, therefore, we can assimilate a production function approach where the road network constitutes a set of inputs yielding access to markets as output. Methodologically, we originally measure the infrastructure inputs accounting for the real used network and calculate a series of new final and intermediate demand gravity-based and locational indicators, which capture a wide range of economic transactions and represent different concepts of economic accessibility outputs. The value added of this paper is translating a non-parametric frontier approach (DEA) to a dynamic scope (Malmquist indices) by connecting the regional accessibility to the productivity of the road infrastructure inputs associated with each region. Results during 1995–2005 show a low relative accessibility of the Spanish NUTS-3 regions, although improvements have been greater over the last five years. Finally, we observe a U-inverted relationship between the accessibility gains during these years and the geographical localization.     

Demystifying Chinese overseas investment in infrastructure: Port development,the Belt and Road Initiative and regional development

China's outward investment has increased tremendously in recent years and it is currently a global leader in the construction of transportation infrastructure. While its signature ‘Belt and Road Initiative’ (BRI) is often portrayed as a threat by policy makers and media in the West, this article approaches the BRI from the perspective of Beijing. We review Chinese infrastructure investment and show that rather than a monolithic strategy aimed at world domination, the BRI is driven by a range of Chinese stakeholders situated at different scales whose motives vary from achieving strategic geopolitical advantage to profit-maximization. We focus on port investments to demonstrate that the BRI accelerated an ongoing trend of increasing Chinese investment in overseas ports that began in the early 2000s. We subsequently present mini-case studies of port projects Gwadar, Pakistan and Kuantan, Malaysia, which illustrate that large Central Government state-owned enterprises (SOEs) pursue strategic objectives while SOEs situated at the province and city levels are motivated by economic incentives. All Chinese investors embrace the ‘port-park-city’ model pioneered by Shenzhen, and we highlight its potential to foster regional development. We conclude that future research on Chinese infrastructure projects should be relational, multi-scalar and multi-sited.     

Location quotient-based travel costs for determining accessibility changes

Accessibility is not a static feature because it is affected by a large number of factors, such as changes in transport infrastructure, the spatial distribution of human activities, and their interdependence. In this study, we examine the role of location quotient-based travel costs as the travel impedance function in accessibility measurement to better capture accessibility changes over time. The travel impedance function is one of the most widely studied aspects of accessibility. In most studies, travel impedance is determined by a negative exponential function in the travel cost assessment of the accessibility measure as a means to incorporate the distance decay effect. Here, we apply an accessibility index that uses location quotient-based travel costs and an accessibility measure with simple travel costs in order to test the proposed theory. The results of the two methods vary considerably. The location quotient method is discussed in detail, including its potential advantages for measuring accessibility changes. We argue that the location quotient-based travel cost is an appropriate method for determining the travel impedance function in accessibility measurements, especially for analyzing accessibility changes.     

Mapping accessibility in Belgium: a tool for land-use and transport planning?

This paper compares the spatial structure of car accessibility to towns and to railway stations during peak and off-peak hours in Belgium for the country’s 2616 municipalities. A clustering method is applied. It is shown that in a highly urbanised country, the situation is far from being spatially equitable in terms of accessibility, and some areas are more favoured than others. Congestion increases spatial inequalities, differently according to absolute or relative measures of change. By means of examples, this paper shows that even simple accessibility indicators could be useful to support decisions taken by planners and politicians (e.g. as regards the development of residential, industrial and business park areas). Maps indicate the spatial inequalities in terms of accessibility to urban centres and transport nodes, and the impact of congestion on these inequalities. The absolute and relative time losses due to congestion affect different areas in different ways. The location of new developments further increases the congestion problem and the spatial disparities. This paper also insists on the caution that should be adopted when measuring and interpreting “accessibility”, its measurements, its inputs, its temporal changes in absolute and relative terms as well as the need for spatially disaggregated data.     

The impact of orbital motorways on intra-metropolitan accessibility: the case of Madrid's M-40

In this paper, we analyze the impact of orbital motorways on intra-metropolitan accessibility, using as an example the Madrid M-40 orbital motorway. The maps of changes in accessibility show that, as one might expect, the nodes situated near the M-40 are those that most benefit from the new infrastructure and that the further their distance from the M-40, the weaker the changes, although the gradient is much steeper towards the city centre than towards the exterior. All the indicators used point to the fact that the new orbital motorway has brought about relevant changes, but the intensity with which such changes are registered depends on the variable used as a mass (changes are higher in accessibility to population indicators than in accessibility to employment indicators), and on the type of operationalization adopted (the most complex ones are those which least noticeably reflect the effect of the new orbital motorway). It has been verified, in the case of the Madrid M-40, that orbital motorways do not necessarily lead to an increase in the equality of intra-metropolitan accessibility, for this will depend on their location within the metropolitan area: the further out they are, the greater equality they bring, even though they attract less traffic.     

Spatial impact analysis of trans-Yangtze highway fixed links: A case study of the Yangtze River Delta,China

As an important infrastructure connecting straits or rivers, the construction of fixed links has become an effective measure for improving traffic conditions and promoting socio-economic development in many countries and regions around the world. Thus, it has become a significant topic in the field of transport geography. Taking the Yangtze River Delta as its case area, this study proposes a spatial impact model of trans-Yangtze highway fixed links, consisting of three components: an accessibility model, modified gravity model, and traffic utilisation model, which are used to analyse, respectively, cross-Yangtze accessibility and changes to transport structure, cross-Yangtze urban interaction and changes to economic structure, and the utilisation relationship of fixed links. Making use of existing fixed links while planning and building new ones has become the basis for achieving regional integration and sub-regional cooperation in this area, the aim of which is to create the barrier-free circulation of elements. The results prove that this spatial impact model coincides with reality. The increase in the number of fixed links has significantly shortened cross-river travel time and facilitated a unification of north-south highway networks. It has also promoted the formation of a high-connection urban network along the river. Northern urban nodes have joined the southern economic circle and finally achieved north-south integration. There are complex relationships between fixed links and their hinterlands, showing obvious utilisation gaps between the links. The complete system of trans-Yangtze fixed links is comprised of several river crossing facilities and connected highways. The function of each link is related to its role in the regional highway network. From a small number of fixed links to the realisation of multiple trans-Yangtze bridges and tunnels with easy access to multiple arterial highways, a ‘many-to-many’ spatial pattern is created that ultimately leads to the evolution of regional transport and economic structures.     

Improving rural accessibility by locating multimodal mobility hubs

In rural regions, public transportation is often characterized by low accessibility as well as long waiting and travel times. In order to improve rural transportation systems, public decision-makers intend to implement alternative on-demand mobility modes. Herein, new intermodal travel itineraries with transfers at multimodal mobility hubs may enable faster public connections and thereby strengthen public transportation. Against this background, we present a decision support tool for locating multimodal mobility hubs to improve intermodal accessibility. As objectives, we aim at maximizing accessibility to workplaces and to places of private need. Our model decides on locations of multimodal mobility hubs and on the available on-demand mobility modes offered in addition to existing public transportation. We develop our model in an agile process together with rural decision-makers in the district of Heinsberg, Germany, and apply it in a real-world case study. As input for our model, we account for the existing public transportation system, identify points-of-interest, and estimate commuting volumes to workplaces based on official commuting data. Results promise a high potential to improve accessibility in rural areas. However, most of the improvement stems from unimodal car sharing trips.     

Evaluating accessibility impacts of the proposed America 2050 high-speed rail corridor for the Appalachian Region

Transportation improvements are often considered to be precursors of economic growth. This paper examines industry-specific ‘attractiveness’ due to changes in the transportation network for 23 counties in the Appalachian Region. The network improvements result from new highway construction and the proposed America 2050 High-Speed Rail (HSR) plan for the Piedmont Atlantic Megaregion. The impacted counties that are proximate to five HSR stations (Birmingham, Atlanta, Greenville, Charlotte, and Greensboro) are studied for potential accessibility changes between the years 2002 to 2035. The impacts are examined with respect to six key industry sectors found around the proposed HSR stations: manufacturing; retail; construction; mining, quarrying, oil and gas extraction; health-care services; and all other remaining industries combined. The analysis shows that, for transportation improvements with highways only (and no HSR), a decrease in accessibility for all the impacted counties occurs for the six industry sectors examined in the future year of 2035. The HSR speed of 150 miles per hour is found to be adequate enough to cause positive changes in potential accessibility of the directly impacted counties containing the Birmingham and Greenville HSR stations. With combined transportation network improvements from both highway construction and the new 150 mph HSR line, counties around the Atlanta and Greensboro HSR stations would see accessibility increases in 2035 compared to 2002 with respect to five industry sectors: manufacturing; retail; construction; health-care services; and all other remaining industries combined. However, accessibility changes with respect to mining, quarrying, oil and gas extraction would be positive specifically only for the indirectly impacted counties around the Atlanta HSR station and the county containing the Greenville HSR station. This clearly shows differences in the spatial distribution of attractiveness for different industry sectors across the impacted counties along the HSR corridor. Thus, this exploratory analysis could serve as an aid to proactive public policy decision-making for large-scale transportation network improvements, such as the HSR, in understanding and improving economic activities for different industry mixes across other regions of the United States.     

Implementing cycling infrastructure in a politicized space: Lessons from Toronto,Canada

Cycling infrastructure such as cycle tracks and painted bicycle lanes is critical in improving safety of existing cyclists and in increasing the overall mode share of bicycling in communities. However, the implementation of such infrastructure has been fraught with political contentiousness across North America. In this paper, we discuss how theories of automobility and the politics around it may help explain current active transportation planning practice. We then report findings from ten key informant interviews with municipal planners and engineers in the Greater Toronto and Hamilton Area, Canada, in order to identify how they implement cycling infrastructure in the face of political opposition. We find that there are four principal strategies used to secure the political support and ensure the construction of cycling infrastructure across the region: 1) piggybacking on public works projects, 2) using external grants and funding, 3) pre-emptively re-routing cycling infrastructure, and 4) finding support from a political champion. Based on these findings, we conclude that the politicization of cycling infrastructure is a result of the dominance of automobility in Western transportation culture. In other words, it is not the physical presence of the cycling infrastructure, nor its social and political representations, but rather automobile that is political, and a battle for (road)space against it remains and may continue to remain a major policy and professional challenge.