An Empirical Analysis of the Determinants of Interest Rates in Ghana

ABSTRACT

This paper provides an empirical analysis of the determinants of the bank lending rate in Ghana using annual time series data from 1970 to 2013. We found evidence of a long-run equilibrium relationship between the average lending rate charged by commercial banks and its determining factors. In the long run, bank lending rates in Ghana are positively influenced by nominal exchange rates and Bank of Ghana’s monetary policy rate but negatively with fiscal deficit, real GDP and inflation. We also find positive dependence of the bank lending rate on exchange rates, and the monetary policy rate both in the short and long run. Specifically, our findings reveal that the Bank of Ghana’s monetary policy rate and the exchange rate, by far, show strong contemporaneous effects on the average bank lending rate in Ghana.     

MONETARY AND FISCAL INTERACTIONS: SHORT‐RUN AND LONG‐RUN IMPLICATIONS

We model policy interactions in a growing economy. Unemployment can persist and matters for the real wage; conflicting claims underpin inflation outcomes; and aggregate demand determines capacity utilization and unemployment. Monetary policy is characterized by a Taylor rule. Fiscal policy is characterized by a marginal tendency to run deficits or surpluses. We address three questions: can monetary policy ensure macroeconomic stability in the absence of coordinated fiscal policy, can fiscal policy ensure macroeconomic stability when the monetary authority pegs the interest rate, and can policy authorities trade‐off some sustained inflation for a long‐run improvement in unemployment rates?     

Symbiosis of monetary and fiscal policies in a monetary union

We consider the interaction between the monetary policy in a monetary union, and the separate fiscal policies of the member countries. We use a Barro–Gordon-type model extended to many countries and fiscal policies. Each country’s fiscal policies inflict externalities on other countries, and the common monetary policy has its time-consistency problem. But if the two types of policymakers agree about the ideal levels of output and inflation, then this ideal is attained despite disagreements about the weights of the objectives, despite ex post monetary accommodation to fiscal profligacy, without fiscal coordination, without monetary commitment, and for any order of moves.     

利率政策与汇率政策协调搭配的文献综述

当前,我国经济已经进入了一个市场化与国际化的转型时期,在经济全球化背景下,利率政策和汇率政策在我国货币政策中的作用日益显著。我国很多学者在这一领域进行了积极的探索,部分成果实现了学术突破,但对于价格型货币政策即利率政策和汇率政策的综合研究还远远不够丰富和深入。我国应进一步深入研究利率政策和汇率政策的交互作用下对中国宏观经济的影响程度,这种影响是否与货币当局的预期相吻合;包含汇率政策在内的扩展的泰勒规则在中国经济的适应性;研究价格型货币政策工具之间的协调机制。通过梳理利率与汇率的关系、利率政策与汇率政策有效搭配的相关理论,可以更好地为新时期我国利率政策和汇率政策的协调搭配提供参考。     

On the Link Between Exchange‐rate Regimes,Capital Controls and Monetary Policy Autonomy in Small European Countries, 1979–2000

We investigate international monetary‐policy transmission under different exchange‐rate and capital‐account regimes in eleven small, open economies during the 1980s and 1990s. We find no systematic link between ex‐post monetary‐policy autonomy and exchange‐rate regimes. Capital controls appear to have provided a degree of temporal insulation from foreign monetary policy shocks, though not strict autonomy. The results are consistent both with short‐term autonomy for small countries even under fixed exchange rates and an open capital account, and with long‐term dependence under flexible exchange rates and an independent stability target. Results also indicate that euro‐area market interest rates are significantly more responsive to the development of the corresponding US rate than were the previous national rates.     

政策协调、产业结构升级及宏观经济效应分析

不同模式的宏观政策协调不但会对产业结构优化产生差异性影响,也会影响产业结构优化带来的宏观经济效应。本文在新凯恩斯框架下构建理论模型,并基于贝叶斯参数估计和数值模拟分析政策协调对产业结构优化以及宏观经济效应的影响。研究发现:数量型货币政策比价格型货币政策更有利于产业结构优化,收入型财政政策比支出型财政政策更有利于产业结构优化;价格型货币政策和收入型财政政策的政策协调更有利于产业结构优化对消费、就业和产出的促进作用,数量型货币政策和支出型财政政策的政策协调更有利于产业结构优化对通货膨胀的稳定作用;货币政策对产业结构优化升级这一目标与稳定经济波动这一目标存在着Trade Off现象,财政政策对产业结构优化升级这一目标与促进经济增长这一目标存在着Trade Off现象。因此,建议采取货币政策为主、财政政策为辅的宏观经济调控政策,具体操作体现在减息为主结合降低税率水平为辅的政策协调组合来应对经济增速下滑和产业结构升级。     

欧元区财政与货币政策非对称性搭配的经济效应分析——搭便车问题的蒙代尔—弗莱明模型分析

欧元启动后,欧盟统一的货币政策和相对分散的财政政策成为欧盟政策协调的一个核心问题。采用一般均衡的分析方法,运用蒙代尔—弗莱明模型对这一非对称性制度搭配所带来的搭便车问题进行了分析,指出成员国财政政策协调失灵和财政危机将会引发欧盟整体的汇率危机和银行业危机等一系列现实问题。     

Teaching the Linkages Between the International Credit and Foreign Exchange Markets

ABSTRACT

This paper presents a teaching model which provides an analytical framework that encourages students to think about economic events in a global context. It ties the international credit and foreign exchange markets together and shows how international capital flows represent the crucial linkage between them. This model is primarily a teaching tool which illustrates how changes in monetary and fiscal policies in one country, say Japan, impact world interest rates, exchange rates, and trade and capital imbalances for other countries. This approach can also be used to illustrate the impacts of changes in savings and investment behavior by businesses and households, as well as central bank interventions.     

Fiscal policy,monetary policy and external imbalances: Cross-country evidence from Africa's three largest economies

This paper determines which of the three policy approaches: fiscal, monetary and exchange rate can better address external imbalances in the three largest African economies, Nigeria, South Africa and Egypt. To this end, use is made of the panel vector autoregressive model to assess the dynamic effects of shocks emanating from the three policy approaches. The findings of the paper indicate that unlike in many emerging and developed economies the current accounts of these three economies react to fiscal, monetary and exchange rate shocks. More particular, the results of the empirical analysis show that the appreciations of the currencies in the three economies lead to current account surpluses. This is mainly attributed to the fact that most African economies have a high propensity to import with limited productive capacity for exports.     

信贷机制、货币乘数与货币政策有效性研究

本文在蒙代尔—弗莱明的分析框架下引入商业银行信贷机制,来考察固定汇率制下小型开放经济体货币政策的有效性问题,发现货币政策可以作为稳定经济的工具。文章指出,实行固定汇率制度的小型开放经济体,其货币政策具有一定的独立性,可以对实际产出产生一定的作用;不同的货币政策工具对实际产出发生作用的传导机制不同,从而导致效果不同,因此货币当局在对宏观经济进行调节时必须选择适当的货币政策工具。     

中国货币条件指数的理论研究与动态分析

本文首先讨论了货币条件指数的理论基础,同时论述了货币政策信贷传导渠道在中国的发展现状,并且剖析了其特征。然后笔者构建了中国的动态货币条件指数模型,其中包含了体现中国货币政策利率传导渠道的实际利率、汇率传导渠道的实际有效汇率以及信贷传导渠道的贷款增长率。在计算出实际利率、实际有效汇率和贷款增长率的动态权重后,得出中国的动态货币条件指数,其自2000年以来出现了先提高、后降低、再升高的交替态势,表明中国的货币状况自2000年以来处于由紧到松再紧的动态走势。本文最后还根据动态权重的大小及其走势分析了中国货币状况呈现该趋势的主要原因。     

Twin deficit or twin divergence? Fiscal policy, current account, and real exchange rate in the U.S.

In spite of concerns about “twin deficits” (fiscal and the current account deficits) for the United States economy, empirical evidence suggests that “twin divergence” is a more usual feature of the historical data, i.e., when fiscal accounts worsen, the current account improves and vice versa. This paper empirically studies the effects of fiscal policy (government budget deficit shocks) on the current account and the real exchange rate, during the flexible exchange rate regime period. Based on VAR (Vector Auto-Regression) models, we identified “exogenous” fiscal policy shocks after controlling for business cycle effects on fiscal balances. In contrast to the predictions of most theoretical models, the U.S. results suggest that an expansionary fiscal policy shock, or a government budget deficit shock, improve the current account and depreciate the real exchange rate. Increases in private savings and declines in investment contribute to the current account improvement while a nominal exchange rate depreciation, as opposed to a relative price level change, is mainly responsible for the real exchange rate depreciation. The “twin divergence” of fiscal balances and current account balances is also explained by the prevalence of output shocks, i.e. output shocks — more than fiscal shocks — appear to drive the co-movements of the current account and the fiscal balance.     

Monetary,Financial and Fiscal Stability in the East African Community: Ready for a Monetary Union?

We examine prospects for a monetary union in the East African Community (EAC) by developing a stylised model of policymakers' decision problem that allows for uncertain benefits derived from monetary, financial and fiscal stability and then calibrating the model for the EAC for the period 2003–10. When policymakers properly allow for uncertainty, none of the countries wants to pursue a monetary union based on either monetary or financial stability grounds, and only Rwanda might favour it on fiscal stability grounds; we argue that robust institutional arrangements assuring substantial improvements in monetary, financial and fiscal stability are needed to compensate.     

中国积极财政政策与货币政策效力的比较——对蒙代尔—弗莱明模型的一个修正运用

运用一个修正的MF模型 ,对我国积极财政政策和货币政策的效力进行比较 ,得出在我国现行汇率制度安排下 ,积极财政政策的效果要优于货币政策。当前我国的经济政策应以财政政策为主 ,坚持积极的财政政策 ,淡化扩张性的货币政策。     

小型开放经济环境下的最优货币政策设计

在经典的小型开放经济框架内,植入一个现金预留(CIA)模型,研究多重冲击下小型开放经济的最优货币政策设计问题,结果显示:汇率波动、货币流通速度冲击、财政冲击以及家庭消费冲击等通过成本渠道对物价和产出产生了直接影响。因此,在为小型开放经济体制定货币政策时,货币当局应充分考虑这些因素,使货币政策调控不仅对产出和通货膨胀的波动做出反应,而且对汇率波动和上述冲击也应做出适当的调整。此外,为营造有利的货币政策实施环境,外汇市场应实行有管理的浮动汇率制度。     

Exchange rate versus inflation targeting: a theory of output fluctuations in traded and non-traded sectors

This paper develops a basic model for output fluctuations in traded and non-traded sectors under two alternative monetary policy regimes; exchange rate targeting (or monetary union) and inflation targeting. The conventional wisdom from one-sector models says that inflation targeting gives better output stabilization than exchange rate targeting when demand shocks occur, but the opposite when supply shocks occur. In a model with a traded and a non-traded sector, we show that the conventional wisdom holds for the non-traded sector. However, for the traded sector, we show that inflation targeting destabilizes output compared with exchange rate targeting when both supply and demand shocks occur. The only shocks where inflation targeting provides the better output stability for the traded sector are shocks to world market prices. The two-sector structure introduces new mechanisms that may turn around earlier results for aggregate production. For instance, a demand shock may induce higher aggregate output fluctuations with inflation targeting than with exchange rate targeting. Furthermore, a positive demand shock may prove to be contractionary under inflation targeting.     

Consumption and macroeconomic policies: Theory and evidence from developing countries

Abstract

This paper examines determinants of private consumption in a sample of developing countries. The empirical model includes income, a proxy for the cost of consumption, and the exchange rate. Anticipated movements in these determinants are likely to trigger adjustment in planned consumption, while unanticipated changes determine random transitory adjustment in consumption. Fluctuations in private consumption are mostly random with respect to unanticipated changes in income and, to a lesser extent, the exchange rate. Consumption increases during cyclical expansion of income and decreases in the face of an unanticipated increase in the cost of consumption. Exchange rate fluctuations have mixed results on private consumption. As for the effects of domestic policies, fiscal policy has a limited, and sometimes negative, effect on private consumption. Monetary growth, in contrast, stimulates an increase in private consumption. This evidence supports recent calls to decrease the size of government and enhance the role of monetary policy in stimulating private activity in developing countries.     

影响我国内外部均衡的政策实施环境

当前 ,我国在运用财政政策和货币政策实现内外部均衡过程中 ,要受到体制环境、社会环境等各种因素的制约。由于人民币利率和人民币汇率的市场化程度都比较低 ,决定了我国内外部均衡的实现要依靠政府强有力的宏观调控政策 ,但政府采取的货币政策的实施效果又被当今社会诚信缺失所破坏。我国目前对境内机构经常项目外汇收入所实行的强制结汇政策也导致了外部失衡对内部均衡的冲击。城乡居民边际消费倾向的降低使财政政策的效果大打折扣。不过 ,由于我国进出口商品结构的变化 ,进出口商品的需求弹性系数在逐步提高 ,运用人民币汇率政策调节国际收支实现外部均衡的条件也在改善     

日德本币升值下的政策得失及对我国的启示

在本币升值背景下,日本与德国采取了不同的应对政策。德国首先着眼于国内宏观经济的稳定,放开汇率的波动,从而更好地保持了国民经济的稳定与增长;而日本试图阻止和缓解日元升值压力,其结果却是日元持续急剧升值,并造成了日本高通货膨胀和泡沫经济。综观日本、德国汇率波动的历史可以得到以下启示：人民币汇率升值是必然趋势;坚持货币政策的独立性十分重要;在坚持货币政策的独立性的同时,实现缓慢渐进式汇率改革;区域货币合作有利于区域内强国减少投机资本冲击,减少汇率升值对贸易品部门的负面影响;加快经济发展战略的转型,促使内外经济均衡发展。