Does nutrition have a place in agricultural research?

There are very few examples where nutritional objectives have made an effective contribution to planning agricultural research for developing countries. The complex nature of nutrition and the limitations of formal planning procedures help explain the failure. But most commentators ignore the personal, political and ideological factors that seriously limit the effectiveness of nutrition as a parameter for research planning. Three cases are discussed where nutrition has played a role in setting agricultural research directions, without evident nutritional impact. Conclusions are proposed for making agricultural research planning more relevant to nutritional concerns.     

Priorities in agricultural research

This article is a personal reflection on priorities in agricultural research, priorities which can only be seriously formulated in relation to an overall strategy for agriculture, food and nutrition. Dr Ulbricht identifies three main areas of agricultural research — that which is universal in application and involves a substantial increase in knowledge, that which is generally universal in application but is defining new technologies and that which is directed to defining new technologies for specific local situations. He emphasises the importance of the latter which has been greatly neglected and is of particular importance in developing countries.     

The economics of agricultural research: Some recent developments

In this non-technical review of agricultural research the author points to the geographical and economic distribution of research efforts, the problems of transfers of knowledge and technologies, consequent adjustment problems, and resource allocation in agricultural research.     

Private agricultural research in Asia

Agricultural research in South and South-east Asia was started by a mix of private companies, commodity groups and governments. In the 1960s and 1970s, government research increased rapidly, commodity groups declined in importance and there were signs of private research growth. Recently, the increased demand for modern inputs and changes in government policy provide greater incentives for private research, but first they have to resolve a number of issues about the role private research should play in their societies.     

Cost-benefit analysis of agricultural research: hybrid maize reconsidered

This paper reviews the use of benefit-cost ratio, and the internal or external rate of return for ex post and ex ante assessment of agricultural research projects. The classic data on hybrid maize are used to illustrate unsatisfactory features of these criteria. In the absence of practicable optimization procedures, it is suggested that the net benefits of projects might be quantified, then judgment exercised on patterns of resource usage as well as on social consequences. Present value of net benefits is sensitive to discount rate and to the base year taken for discounting, but an ‘equivalent annual flow’ is a useful alternative form of expression. It is finally pointed out that the rejection of the high rates of return on agricultural research published in many retrospective studies does not weaken the case for investment in agricultural research which has to be determined by national needs. If, in the past, science was pursued for its own sake, nowadays it is being asked whether national expenditure on scientific research can also be justified in economic terms. Agricultural research would seem to be a particularly suitable area for studying this question since it is largely publicly funded, and agricultural benefits tend to accrue to the community as a whole in its capacity as a consumer of food.     

Economic and agricultural development in West Asia and North Africa : The need for agricultural research

This paper analyses the role of agriculture in the economic development of West Asia and North Africa, with special reference to the interactions between oil wealth, population growth, agricultural development and the need for agricultural research. Since the 1960s agricultural supply lagged behind demand, which grew rapidly as a result of population increases and rising incomes. Following the oil recession of the 1980s it was felt that the development of the agricultural sector should be less dependent on other sectors, particularly oil. The possible roles of agriculture in the region's future economic development are outlined, with the implications for agricultural research. Special attention is given to the natural resource constraints affecting the region's agriculture (particularly water), and to the issues influencing the identification of research priorities.     

US agricultural research politics: Utopians,utilitarians, copians

Political support for US public agricultural research institutions has come from first users within the industry and from those interested in the long-run consequences of improved agricultural technology. Public funding for agricultural research was initially supported by ‘utopians’, who envisioned technology development as a route to food abundance and reduced labour. Recently, ‘dystopian’ groups have urged reform in the development process and have suggested alternative scenarios for coping with food needs in the twenty-first century. Major contemporary support comes from first users, including regional and commodity producer groups, and also from innovative farmers. These ‘utilitarians’ have also produced a scenario for coping with future food needs. Unsuccessful efforts have been made to reconcile the research agendas of these contrasting scenarios.     

The economic analysis of agricultural research

Several economic analyses of agricultural research projects have been published in which the ‘surplus’ concept has been used to estimate welfare changes. It is suggested that this procedure does not provide a welfare indicator suitable as a basis for action. The analytical procedure can be re-worked purely in terms of resource usages. However, the welj-known hybrid-maize data of Griliches are used to show that ‘technical assessment’ can often provide, much more simply, as adequate an approximation as more elaborate methods. The importance for agricultural research planning of considerations other than the efficient use of resources is stressed.     

The state's role in financing agricultural research

Recent declines in public agricultural research funding in developing countries may not be as severe or as universal as widely perceived, although some research systems are clearly constrained. An analysis of the economic characteristics of agricultural research suggests that there may be some crowding-out of private finance, but the harnessing of additional private resources depends critically on enhancing the profitability and appropriability of research benefits, while the case for increasing levels of public funding on research with greater public good characteristics remains strong. However, the justifiable scrutiny of the state's role in financing agricultural research should not be at the expense of continued efforts to improve the efficiency of agricultural research delivery and the management of existing funds.     

Economic analysis and priorities of agricultural research

This response to two previous papers in Food Policy argues that cost-benefit analyses of agricultural research have not recognized the constraints on markets for farm produce, which also affect the realization of policy objectives. Policy evaluation could be assisted by economic analysis, but this should not lead to the neglect of non-economic values.     

A current research information system for the management of agricultural research

Abstract
A generalized current research information and costing system for management of an agricultural research programme is described by reference to the Agricultural Research Current Information System (ARCIS) of the Agricultural and Food Research Council of the United Kingdom.     

Dynamics of agricultural research organization in Latin America

The authors summarize the conditions that led to the development of national research institutes in Latin America and to the creation of the international centres of agricultural research. The authors review the modernization process of the agricultural sector and the role played by public and international organizations in the appearance of non-public research. The authors discuss the impact of these institutional developments on the effectiveness of national research institutes, and the implications for agricultural science, technology policy, and the organization of agricultural research in the Third World.     

Costs and benefits of an agricultural research institute

This paper represents an attempt to assess the economic impact of a publicly funded agricultural research institute in cost-benefit terms. The institute is the Scottish Plant Breeding Station which was responsible for breeding two successful main-crop potato varieties. Benefits, achieved and prospective, from new crop varieties are calculated from estimates of resources saved in producing constant crops at reduced acreages but with higher yields. Over the timescale 1951-97, costs (discounted at 10/SL to 1972) total 9-7 M/SL and benefits total 29-8 M/SL (of which 21-1 M/SL is attributable to the two successful potatoes). The net present value is estimated as 20-1 M/SL (B/C 3-1) (very probably in the range 12-37 M/SL, B/C 2-2-4-8). In discussion it is pointed out that few cost-benefit studies of agricultural research are available and that the administrative implications of the present study are far from clear. Plant breeding, in general, being largely free of environmental or welfare effects, seems to be economically attractive and socially benign; and it must become even more attractive with rising food prices and land values.     

Pro-poor agricultural biotechnology: Can the international research system deliver the goods?

While global investment in agricultural research by the private sector is increasing with growth in developing country markets and the emergence of new technologies, complementary public sector investment is stagnating or declining in many developing countries. This review argues that the changing roles of the public and private sectors in generating new scientific knowledge may adversely affect the diffusion of explicitly pro-poor technologies—technologies that are simultaneously yield-enhancing and poverty-reducing. Comparing historical evidence from the Green Revolution with recent evidence from the emerging era of agricultural biotechnology, this review argues that a more pluralistic international system for agricultural research will be more responsive to poverty only if the strategic leadership role of the public sector is strengthened, certain research functions are reallocated to the private sector, and new policy and organizational mechanisms are used to stimulate pro-poor research in and for developing-country agriculture.     

Technology development and adoption rates: Systems approach for agricultural research and extension

Adoption of new technology in peasant agriculture remains lower than expected. Failure to achieve expected returns is associated more with insufficiencies in the conduct of research than with external and economic factors such as price structure or lack of agricultural support services. This article sets out the case for national agricultural research and extension structures that emphasize on-farm research with a systems approach.     

Plant breeders' rights and international agricultural research

Enactment of plant breeders' rights legislation has recently been a contentious political issue in several countries. An economic perspective to the issue is presented through consideration of the structure of the plant breeding and seed industries. A theoretical account is given of the probable economic effects of plant breeders' rights legislation in developing countries. Aspects which might be usefully considered when examining whether a particular developing country should enact plant breeders' rights legislation are also discussed. Finally, general issues faced by the international agricultural research centres with respect to plant breeders' rights are also outlined and some particular issues discussed.     

Targeting agricultural research to benefit poor farmers: Relating poverty mapping to maize environments in Mexico

We explore approaches for targeting agricultural research to benefit poor farmers. Using small area estimation methods and spatial analysis, we generated high-resolution poverty maps and combined them with geo-referenced biophysical data relevant to maize-based agriculture in Mexico. We used multivariate classification and cluster analysis to synthesize biophysical data relevant for crop performance with rural poverty data. Results show that the rural poor are concentrated in particular regions and under particular circumstances. Formal maize germplasm improvement trials were largely outside the core areas of rural poverty and there was little evidence for direct spillover of improved germplasm. Agro-climatic classification used for targeting breeding is useful but often ignores some important factors identified as relevant for the poor. Combining this method with poverty mapping improves stratifying and targeting crop breeding efforts to meet the demands of resource-poor farmers. We believe this integrated approach will help increase benefits from agricultural research to poor rural communities.     

Jobs and agricultural policy: Impact of the common agricultural policy on EU agricultural employment

This paper investigates the relationship between EU agricultural subsidies and the outflow of labor from agriculture. We use more representative subsidy indicators and a wider coverage (panel data from 210 EU regions over the period 2004-2014) than has been used before. The data allow to better correct for sample selection bias than previous empirical studies. We find that, on average, CAP subsidies reduce the outflow of labor from agriculture, but the effect is almost entirely due to decoupled Pillar I payments. Coupled Pillar I payments have no impact on reducing labor outflow from agriculture, i.e. on preserving jobs in agriculture. The impact of Pillar II is mixed. Our estimates predict that an increase of 10 percent of the CAP budget would prevent an extra 16,000 people from leaving the EU agriculture sector each year. A 10 percent decoupling would save 13,000 agricultural jobs each year. However, the budgetary costs are large. The estimated cost is more than € 300,000 per year (or more than € 25,000 per month) per job saved in agriculture.