Does a clustered location matter for high-technology companies' performance? The case of biotechnology in the Netherlands

Young entrepreneurial companies in biotechnology tend to cluster in space, nearby research universities and research centers. This pattern is often ascribed to the availability of external economies, mainly local knowledge spillovers that help to reduce the uncertainty from a disruptive technology faced by these companies. Given a shortage of empirical research on cluster advantages and performance of clustered companies, we present results of a comparative analysis of clustered and non-clustered companies in biotechnology and Bionanotechnology in the Netherlands. It appears that, among other influences, a clustered location has no significant influence on innovation and speed of growth. However, a location in the largest cluster (Leiden) does contribute to a better performance in terms of innovativeness compared with all other locations. The kind of external economies involved seems to vary according to the stage in the knowledge value chain and the segment in biotechnology industry. Knowledge spillovers tend to be local for companies involved in new drugs and diagnostics research only in the first stage of the knowledge chain and for service companies regardless of the stage in the knowledge chain.     

Organizational Learning in Cooperative Alliances: Some Case Studies in Biotechnology

Dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs) have played an important role in commercializing biotechnology. They emerged first in the US and, after a 5-year time lag, they also appeared in Europe. Faced with long and costly product lead times, DBFs raised money by entering into research contracts, mainly with large chemical and pharmaceutical companies. These coopertive research alliances have not vanished as biotechnology has matured and are more in evidence today than they were in the early dasy of the commercialization of biotechnology. This paper investigates how and why large and small companies enter research collaborations, what they learn from working together, and the effects on European competitiveness.     

Organizational Learning in Cooperative Alliances: Some Case Studies in Biotechnology

Dedicated biotechnology firms (DBFs) have played an important role in commercializing biotechnology. They emerged first in the US and, after a 5-year time lag, they also appeared in Europe. Faced with long and costly product lead times, DBFs raised money by entering into research contracts, mainly with large chemical and pharmaceutical companies. These coopertive research alliances have not vanished as biotechnology has matured and are more in evidence today than they were in the early dasy of the commercialization of biotechnology. This paper investigates how and why large and small companies enter research collaborations, what they learn from working together, and the effects on European competitiveness.     

英国曼彻斯特大学技术转移模式及其启示

大学所属的技术转移公司是英国技术转移中介机构中最重要的一类机构,在促进英国大学技术转移中发挥了重要作用。以曼彻斯特大学的知识产权管理公司(UMIP)为例,对其业务范围、团队构成、主要技术转移模式和支持方式进行了详细的介绍。UMIP技术转移的模式主要为技术驱动型和需求导向型两种。除一般性支持外,UMIP还通过PoP基金对项目进行早期支持,同时为派生公司提供早期风险资金支持。英国大学技术转移工作的模式和方法带给我们的启示是:大学应成为技术转移的重要力量,专业化的技术转移人员是技术转移中介机构成功的重要保证,专利许可不是技术转移的唯一模式,也不是主要模式,大学要为所属技术转移机构提供政策和基金支持等。     

Markets for knowledge: problems,scope, and economic implications

This article aims at developing an analytical framework in order to highlight the significance of the markets for knowledge. The empirical evidence provides the basis for analysing diverse governance mechanisms in high tech sectors. Increasing specialisation of knowledge production is pointed out from biotechnology and semiconductor industry. Next, the running of the markets for knowledge leads to appreciate the role of KIBSF in traditional services and new-technology based services. Finally, the behaviours of knowledge producers is linked to various tradeoffs they encounter.     

Knowledge virtualization and local connectedness among young globalized high-tech companies

Smart high-tech companies are characterized by knowledge intensity and open innovation, and even when these companies emerge in spatial clusters or in dense urban places, they may utilize knowledge networks on a global scale. There is, however, not much insight into the factors that shape global knowledge networks, the role of virtualization therein, and the impact of global knowledge sourcing on local connectedness. An attempt is made in this paper to fill these gaps in our understanding, using a selected sample of young high-tech companies in the Netherlands and rough set analysis to identify homogeneous categories in the highly differentiated young high-tech companies segment. The outcomes suggest coexistent use of both mainly local and mainly global knowledge networks in city-regions, and losing local connectedness by some of the globalized companies, particularly those involved in co-creation of products with global customers and those acting as learning partners of global multinational corporations. Factors counteracting the weakening of local connectedness are specific local knowledge relationships with a university or company of origin, and a strategy of developing local/regional customer markets.     

THE DEVELOPMENT OF INITIAL PUBLIC OFFERING MARKETS FOR EMERGING COMPANIES IN JAPAN

Abstract.  This paper reviews the development of IPO markets for emerging companies in Japan, especially after an entry of NASDAQ in Japan in 2000 with a view to assess whether they have provided markets for the growth firms and whether venture capital investments have shown an increase. Using the publicly available data, it examines the features of the three IPO markets and confirmed that JASDAQ is a market for traditional industries with relatively large size of emerging companies, whereas both Mothers and Hercules offer markets for new industries with young companies. It also discusses possible measures to further enhance market development.     

Intellectual property governance and knowledge creation in UK universities

The public discourse advocating increased patenting of academic discoveries, which has led to the approval of legislative measures (such as the Bayh–Dole Act, which is now adopted world-wide in various forms) is based on a set of theoretical arguments, mainly related to knowledge transfer and financial reward. Using an original survey of 46 universities (about 27%) in the UK, we investigate whether some of these arguments are supported by evidence. We focus on the extent to which patents, as opposed to other forms of intellectual property (IP) protection mechanisms, enhance knowledge circulation, and especially contribute to universities’ own knowledge creation processes. We also investigate whether universities consider the markets for ideas and creative expressions to function efficiently. We find that universities use all forms of IP intensively in order to transfer their knowledge to the industry or the government. However, they mainly rely on non-proprietary IP (open-source and no-patent strategies) when aiming to enhance their own knowledge-creation processes. Also, universities do not find that markets for patents or copyrights function more smoothly than non-proprietary IP marketplaces. The results challenge the orthodox theories on the rationales for patents and other proprietary IP rights. Thus, we question the assumptions and arguments underpinning the implementation of patents on academic research outcomes via political reforms since the 1980s.     

The Indian Challenge: The Evolution of a Successful New Global Strategy in the Pharmaceutical Industry

UK and European public policy has sought to encourage young biotechnology firms adopt American-inspired strategies. The venture-backed start-up associated with Silicon Valley and Route 128 in Boston, has been the preferred model. These policies have had limited success thus far. Indian companies are evolving indigenous business models that are achieving success within the pharmaceutical industry. Some Indian pharmaceutical firms, established initially as low cost suppliers, are investing in building innovative capabilities. This paper analyses the strategies and trajectories of a number of Indian pharmaceutical companies that are expanding successfully in Western markets. It assesses the local and international contextual factors that have underpinned the strategies and discusses relevant conceptual frameworks.     

Determinants of International R&D Outsourcing: The Role of Trade

This paper investigates the determinants of international R&D outsourcing, in particular the role of trade. We sketch a monopolistic competition model with heterogeneous firms where outsourcing increases a firm's fixed transaction costs as well as its productivity. Financial constraints affect the decision to outsource R&D more to nonexporters than to exporters. In contrast, exporters are more sensitive to a lack of information because they have higher losses when there is technology leakage. We test these predictions using a panel database of Spanish companies. The results highlight the relevance of information in competitive markets, and the role of trade to induce companies to engage in other globalization strategies.     

技术并购企业创新绩效影响因素研究——以中国高端装备制造业为例

以2013—2017年中国高端制造业发生的技术并购事件为对象，展开技术并购企业创新绩效影响因素研究。结果表明，企业间关联关系、技术吸收能力和目标企业绝对知识规模对技术并购企业创新绩效有正向影响；并购双方相对知识规模和上市时长对技术并购企业创新绩效有负向影响；企业间关联关系、技术吸收能力会弱化并购双方相对知识规模对企业创新绩效的负向影响。基于此，建议我国高端装备制造企业发展到成熟阶段后，可以通过技术并购开展创新活动；在并购中，并购企业要根据自身技术吸收能力选择绝对知识规模合适的目标企业；继续提高研发投入强度，增强并购后的技术整合能力。     

Firms’ growth: Does the innovation system matter?

The paper investigates the effects of external sources of knowledge on firm growth. In line with the knowledge spillovers literature, we focus on the relationship between firms and universities, considered as a crucial source of knowledge. To this purpose, we analyse a sample of UK public companies in the period 1995 to 2006. Our findings confirm that both universities’ knowledge input and output are important determinants of the growth of entrepreneurial firms.     

Factors affecting technology transfer offices' performance in the Italian food context

In recent years, growing attention has been devoted to the commercialisation of knowledge and technologies developed by universities and public research institutions. A central role in this particular process is played by the technology transfer offices (TTOs), which are on the one hand in charge of promoting the transfer of knowledge and technology to external companies, and on the other hand are also responsible for protecting and licensing the intellectual property of the research organisation. This paper is focused on a TTO operating in the food context, with the specific objectives of identifying the performance indicators and the main factors affecting its performance and, finally, analysing the relationships among these factors. Results highlighted the importance of both external and internal factors for the performance of a TTO operating in this context. In addition, we found both direct and indirect relations within these factors.     

Using Bibliometrics to Measure Firm Knowledge: An Analysis of the US Pharmaceutical Industry

A recent literature review highlighted the knowledge-based view as an important current theory in the strategic management area. The current paper utilizes that theory as the context for employing bibliometrics to uncover the publishing and patenting citation patterns in a group of twelve US pharmaceutical companies over a 13-year period. Our initial findings suggest that firms self-cite a great deal, and that they rely heavily on public science. In addition, we found that Merck and Co. is the most frequently cited company in both the science and technology areas, though somewhat less so in technology. The managerial implications, particularly from a knowledge perspective, are discussed as well as some suggestions for future research.     

How technological innovation affects the structure of an industry: entrepreneurship evolution in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry since 1980

Challenges faced by the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industry, including reduced R&D productivity and the expiration of drugs that are high in demand, are recently being addressed through technological innovation. Such innovations are highly likely to change the structure and functioning of the industry. Since 2000, biotechnology and pharmaceutical companies have actively made strategic alliance, and technological innovations have changed the source of innovation from R&D to entrepreneurship within the industry. In this study, we identify the evolution of entrepreneurship and discuss the changes caused by technological advancements since 1980 by analysing patterns of exporting and acquiring technology data from Medtrack. Over difference period, biopharmaceutical firms have gained new knowledge and improved technology, and have implemented this newly acquired knowledge and innovation to introduce drugs to the market.     

Using Bibliometrics to Measure Firm Knowledge: An Analysis of the US Pharmaceutical Industry

A recent literature review highlighted the knowledge-based view as an important current theory in the strategic management area. The current paper utilizes that theory as the context for employing bibliometrics to uncover the publishing and patenting citation patterns in a group of twelve US pharmaceutical companies over a 13-year period. Our initial findings suggest that firms self-cite a great deal, and that they rely heavily on public science. In addition, we found that Merck and Co. is the most frequently cited company in both the science and technology areas, though somewhat less so in technology. The managerial implications, particularly from a knowledge perspective, are discussed as well as some suggestions for future research.     

Terminating Piracy or Legitimate Seed Saving? The Use of Copy-Protection Technology in Seeds

This article analyses the strategies of the agro-biotechnology industry to control and exploit plant-genetic knowledge, and the dilemmas that these strategies involve. The replicability of plants limits markets for commercial seeds, as it enables farmers to reproduce seeds themselves. The industry has therefore invented genetic-engineering techniques that will block the replicability of plants, and will effectively prevent farmers from saving their own seeds. However, this copy-protection technique— dubbed 'Terminator'—is widely condemned in farming communities. The technology overrules intellectual property laws that exempt seed saving for private use, and it is likely to have a negative impact on medium-sized and small farming systems in developing countries. In this article it is argued that while copy protection in plants may expand seed markets, it may also seriously damage the reputation of the biotechnology industry. Corporate scientists and strategists should be more open to a public discussion about the fairness and legitimacy of seed production for private use.     

Biotechnology: the emerging battlefield for US and Japanese pharmaceutical companies

The Japanese pharmaceutical industry has lagged behind the US in developing and marhting innovative new compounh. A gap anabsis rebing on international publication and patenting stahtics as well as market survgs shows that the US is the clear leader in biophannaceuticals. Recent Japanese public and private efforts to close the gap have posed no immediate threat to US pharmaceutical companies. The conflict over industrial policy among the ministries involved will take some time to be resolved. However, information networking activities and cross-border technology linkages of Japanese companies should not be underestimated. Biotechnology is current4 transforming theJapanese pharmaceutical induse, and the US will have to deal with a gowing Japanese challenge in the long run. Preventive US counter-measures should include investments in in-house biotechnology research, acquisitions of smaller biotechnology start-up ventures, global commercialization o f biophannaceuticals, and proactive management o f technology linkages with Japanese companies.