生态环境服务付费的国际经验及其对中国的启示

生态环境服务付费在国际上引起关注的三个背景是:(1)生态问题的凸显;(2)新古典经济学意识形态的流行;(3)保护环境和减少贫困一石两鸟的期望。与生态环境服务付费理念相似的概念,在我国一般被称为生态补偿。生态补偿在我国受到重视是国情使然。这一国情与上述三个背景有共通之处,也有独特之处。这决定了生态环境服务付费的国际经验对我国生态补偿有潜在的借鉴意义,同时生态补偿又有中国特色。生态环境服务付费的国际经验对我国的主要启示是:(1)需要提高下游(环境服务需求方)的生态补偿意识;(2)公平的生态补偿机制要求考虑上游保护生态环境的机会成本;(3)权属明晰化是使生态补偿机制长久可持续的前提;(4)政府应鼓励地方创新形式多样的补偿形式;等等。     

The CAMPFIRE programme in Zimbabwe: Payments for wildlife services

Payments for environmental services (PES) have been distinguished from the more common integrated conservation and development projects on the grounds that PES are direct, more cost-effective, less complex institutionally, and therefore more likely to produce the desired results. Both kinds of schemes aim to achieve similar conservation outcomes, however, and generally function in analogous social, political and economic environments. Given the relative novelty of PES, what lessons can be learnt and applied from earlier initiatives? In this paper, we describe the evolution over the first 12 years (1989-2001) of Zimbabwe's Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources (CAMPFIRE), a community-based natural resource management programme in which Rural District Councils, on behalf of communities on communal land, are granted the authority to market access to wildlife in their district to safari operators. These in turn sell hunting and photographic safaris to mostly foreign sport hunters and eco-tourists. The District Councils pay the communities a dividend according to an agreed formula. In practice, there have been some underpayments and frequent delays. During 1989-2001, CAMPFIRE generated over US$20 million of transfers to the participating communities, 89% of which came from sport hunting. The scale of benefits varied greatly across districts, wards and households. Twelve of the 37 districts with authority to market wildlife produced 97% of all CAMPFIRE revenues, reflecting the variability in wildlife resources and local institutional arrangements. The programme has been widely emulated in southern and eastern Africa. We suggest five main lessons for emerging PES schemes: community-level commercial transactions can seldom be pursued in isolation; non-differentiated payments weaken incentives; start-up costs can be high and may need to be underwritten; competitive bidding can allow service providers to hold on to rents; and schemes must be flexible and adaptive.     

Decentralized payments for environmental services: The cases of Pimampiro and PROFAFOR in Ecuador

Few payment for environmental services (PES) schemes in developing countries operate outside of the central state's umbrella, and are at the same time old enough to allow for a meaningful evaluation. Ecuador has two such decentralised, consolidated experiences: the five-year old Pimampiro municipal watershed-protection scheme and the twelve-year old PROFAFOR carbon-sequestration programme. We describe and compare the two cases, using a common PES definition and methodology, drawing on both primary interview-based information and secondary data. We find that both schemes have been relatively effective in reaching their environmental objectives, in terms of having probably high additionality levels and low leakage effects. A strong focus on the targeted environmental service and a strong degree of conditionality seem to be two key factors explaining these achievements. Although neither scheme has targeted poverty alleviation or other side objectives, both are likely to have improved PES recipients' welfare, mostly through higher incomes. We highlight several observations with more generalised relevance and lessons for the design of PES schemes.     

美国会计改革对规范我国上市公司信息披露的启示

从2002年上市公司信息披露的状况看，我国必须进行会计改革。美国的会计改革经验对我国有明显的启迪作用，我们可参考美国的做法：(1)完善会计准则和上市公司信息披露制度；(2)完善法律体系，加大监管力度；(3)完善独立审计监管体系；(4)完善公司治理结构，改革审计机制。     

Chinese rural reform in 30 years: An analysis in terms of institutional economics

Both from history and logic, the rural reform is the starting point for China’s overall economic reform. The gradualism, inherent logical evolution and interest conflict of reform in China all have their origins in rural reform. The thirty-year’s rural reform can be viewed as the adjustment of urban-rural relations by different period. This study adopts the analytical framework of institutional economics to clearly demonstrate the whole logic process of institutional transition, then from the international comparative perspective, generalizes some basic experiences in China’s rural reform and the lessons for developing and transitional countries. On the basis of judging different stages of economic development, this paper also sums up the new challenges faced by rural reform and discusses its prospects for the next reform.     

Between Collapse and Survival in North Korea: an Economic Assessment of the Dilemma

The current North Korean reform focuses on an open door policy without much import liberalization and on a partial domestic liberalization limited to the consumer sector. This can be considered a variant of the so-called East Asian growth model pursued in South Korea, Taiwan, and China. Although the basic directions of such a model are understandable, the intensity of the reform measures is not radical and strong enough, and the economy has exhausted domestic resources to rely on and is having difficulty in getting access to external resources. Collaboration from the US and South Korea is the most critical elements for the success of North Korean strategy since these will lower political uncertainty and give the regime access to international capital and markets.They may have at most two or three years to rely on and try a big push from the outside, which can hopefully give the system a new momentum for recovery. Otherwise, collapse is certain since they do not have their own ability to revitalize the economy. Success or failure of the next three-year reform will determine the future of North Korea. Failure, including the sudden stop of the reform by internal coup, could lead to collapse of the North Korean regime (hard landing), which will bring in radical reforms either by a new North Korean leadership or by a South Korean takeover. Success could lead to a widening and deepening of reforms to deal with the main body of the domestic economic system (Chinese style soft landing), or alternatively give room for stop-go style (Romania or Cuba style) muddling through.     

科技体制转轨应遵循的规律及其配套改革模型

本文说明了科技体制转轨过程中应遵循的规律，即要素围绕优势创新集体优化重组，以新机制运行增量并渐进地带动存量调整，引导并调动主体积极性，中年科技人员有序流动，科技活动的定向研究和自由探索相结合的规律;分析了我国科技资源配置和利用方面存在的不足，科技体制改革方式中值得改进之处，并提出了科技体制转轨的诱致性配套改革模型。本文的探索，对于认识科技体制转轨的规律性，改进对科技体制改革的领导，都可能具有一定的理论意义和实践意义。     

Micro and macroeconomics of tax reform: Indonesia

Indonesia enacted reforms in taxation in 1983. The new laws replace outdated, complicated and unproductive taxes adopted several decades earlier. A complete overhaul of the tax system was required. Use of higher tax rates or other forms of tinkering with the old system were not options under the circumstances. Reform studies began in early 1981. They were strongly focused on base broadening and drastic simplification. While the original impetus for the reform was not fiscal crisis, the new system will be in place in time to supplant much of a projected decline in oil revenues. Other objectives of the reform were more effective income redistribution, simplification of taxation, a new tax information system and streamlining of tax administration. The Indonesian reform made eclectic use of the lessons from similar fiscal exercises in Asia, Africa and Latin America and of recent innovations in tax analysis elsewhere, but was tailored to national objectives and constraints. Prospects for fruitful implementation of the reform are as yet unknowable: one factor augering for some success is that the tax reform was introduced as one of a series of six major belt-tightening policy measures which gained a measure of public acceptance. None were imposed or required for external assistance. It is unclear which, if any, of the lessons derived from this tax reform are transferable elsewhere. However, among the lessons of possible relevance elsewhere is the importance of identifying at the outset those fiscal problems lying at the intersection of the sets of ‘complex’, ‘difficult’ and ‘politically sensitive’ issues. Of the dozens of issues faced in the process of reform in Indonesia, three such issues in this intersection accounted for more than half the intellectual and other resources expended on the reform.     

Payments for environmental services as an alternative to logging under weak property rights: The case of Indonesia

Decentralization reforms in Indonesia have led to local communities negotiating logging agreements with timber companies for relatively low financial payoffs and at high environmental cost. This paper analyzes the potential of payments for environmental services (PES) to provide an alternative to logging for these communities and to induce forest conservation. We apply a game-theoretical model of community-firm interactions that explicitly considers two stylized conditions present in the Indonesian context: (i) community rights to the forest remain weak even after decentralization, and (ii) the presence of logging companies interested in the commercial exploitation of the forest. Intuition may suggest that PES design should focus on those communities with the lowest expected payments from logging deals. However, we show that these communities may not be able to enforce a PES agreement, i.e., they may not be able to prevent logging activities by timber companies. Moreover, some communities would conserve the forest anyway; in these cases PES would not lead to additional environmental gains. Most important, the introduction of PES may increase a community's expected payoff from a logging agreement. A failure to consider this endogeneity in expected payoffs could lead to communities opting for logging agreements despite PES, simply allowing communities to negotiate better logging deals. Our results indicate that PES design is a complex task, and that the costs of an effective PES system could potentially be much higher than expected from observing current logging fees. Using data collected in Indonesia on actual logging fees received by communities, we illustrate how the theoretical results could be used in empirical analysis to guide PES design. Our results are likely to be useful in other cases where local people make resource use decisions but have weak property rights over these resources, and where external commercial forces are present. The results highlight the importance of understanding the details of the local context in order to design PES programs appropriately.     

宏观调控要从加强为主转为改善为主

我国经济仍然保持着快速增长的势头。根据当前宏观经济形势,政府的工作重点应该侧重以下几方面:改善宏观调控,防止经济滑坡;以改革促发展,防止改革被淡化、丑化、异化;外汇储备增长超常,需要降温;房地产市场发展潜力很大,需要保温;资本市场长期低迷,需要升温。总之,为避免出现经济滑坡现象,我国目前的宏观调控要从加强为主转为改善为主。     

REDD+ as Result‐based Aid: General Lessons and Bilateral Agreements of Norway

The initiative known as Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) officially became part of the international climate agenda in 2007. At that time, REDD+ was an idea regarding payment to countries (and possibly also projects) for reducing emission from forests, with funding primarily from carbon markets. The initiative has since become multi‐objective in nature; the policy focus has changed from a payments for environmental services (PES) approach to broader policies, and international funding primarily originates from development aid budgets. This “aidification” of REDD+ has made the program similar to previous efforts using conditional or results‐based aid (RBA). However, the experience of RBA in other sectors has scarcely been addressed in the REDD+ debate. The alleged advantages of RBA are poorly backed by empirical research. This paper reviews the primary challenges in designing and implementing a system of RBA, namely, donor spending pressure, performance criteria, reference levels, risk sharing, and funding credibility. It then reviews the four partially performance‐based, bilateral REDD+ agreements that Norway has entered with Tanzania, Brazil, Guyana, and Indonesia. These agreements and the aid experience provide valuable lessons for the design and implementation of future REDD+ mechanisms.     

Taking stock: A comparative analysis of payments for environmental services programs in developed and developing countries

Payments for environmental services (PES) are an innovative approach to conservation that has been applied increasingly often in both developed and developing countries. To date, however, few efforts have been made to systematically compare PES experiences. Drawing on the wealth of case studies in this Special Issue, we synthesize the information presented, according to case characteristics with respect to design, costs, environmental effectiveness, and other outcomes. PES programs often differ substantially one from the other. Some of the differences reflect adaptation of the basic concept to very different ecological, socioeconomic, or institutional conditions; others reflect poor design, due either to mistakes or to the need to accommodate political pressures. We find significant differences between user-financed PES programs, in which funding comes from the users of the ES being provided, and government-financed programs, in which funding comes from a third party. The user-financed programs in our sample were better targeted, more closely tailored to local conditions and needs, had better monitoring and a greater willingness to enforce conditionality, and had far fewer confounding side objectives than government-financed programs. We finish by outlining some perspectives on how both user- and government-financed PES programs could be made more effective and cost-efficient.     

中国国有企业改革：经验、困境与出路*

作为国有企业产权改革主要模式，“混合所有制”改革是否有助于确保国有资产保值增值，是否有助于推动中国经济可持续发展等问题仍存在探讨空间。本文基于对于改革开放以来中国国有企业改革的成就和教训的考察，指出“混合所有制”可以作为竞争性部门国有企业改革的一个过渡形式；对于垄断央企的改革应该充分借鉴国际上自然垄断行业的改革经验，打破行政垄断，推动竞争性框架建立，并切实实现从“管企业”逐步调整为“管资本”，通过改革实现国有资产的保值增值，并为经济创造新的增长点。     

苏联剧变20年后的再思考

在苏联剧变已经20年之后,结合中国30多年实行改革开放政策以来的状况,应进一步深入研究苏联剧变的原因及我国应吸取的教训。对苏联剧变的根本性原因,研究者们至今存在不同看法,因此得出教训自然也不同。文章分析了产生不同观点的深层次因素,并在此基础上思考了当今中国应吸取什么重要教训。     

西方发达国家财政体制的启示

西方主要发达国家财政体制经过长期的实践,已经十分成熟,它对中国财政体制改革具有很好的借鉴作用。中国要进一步进行财政体制改革,应借鉴世界上市场经济国家财政体制的实践结合本国当前的实际,建立“二元合一、城乡一体、事权明确、合理分权、体系完善、协调发展”的新型财政体制。     

强化个人所得税调节功能的政策建议

个人所得税是经济发展与国家调节个人收入相结合的产物,是随着个人收入差距的逐步拉大而产生的,我国目前个人所得税的收入结构与当前我国城镇居民的所得主要来源于工薪所得这一现状是相适应的。在个人所得税发挥了积极作用的同时,也无可否认,个人所得税的流失还很严重,其调节收入分配的作用还未得到充分发挥,对不同收入项目的调节作用发挥也不平衡,客观上说明个人所税税制有必要进一步加以改革和完善。     

Designing payments for environmental services in theory and practice: An overview of the issues

Payments for environmental services (PES) have attracted increasing interest as a mechanism to translate external, non-market values of the environment into real financial incentives for local actors to provide environmental services (ES). In this introductory paper, we set the stage for the rest of this Special Issue of Ecological Economics by reviewing the main issues arising in PES design and implementation and discussing these in the light of environmental economics. We start with a discussion of PES definition and scope. We proceed to review some of the principal dimensions and design characteristics of PES programs and then analyze how PES compares to alternative policy instruments. Finally, we examine in detail two important aspects of PES programs: their effectiveness and their distributional implications.PES is not a silver bullet that can be used to address any environmental problem, but a tool tailored to address a specific set of problems: those in which ecosystems are mismanaged because many of their benefits are externalities from the perspective of ecosystem managers. PES is based on the beneficiary-pays rather than the polluter-pays principle, and as such is attractive in settings where ES providers are poor, marginalized landholders or powerful groups of actors. An important distinction within PES is between user-financed PES in which the buyers are the users of the ES, and government-financed PES in which the buyers are others (typically the government) acting on behalf of ES users. In practice, PES programs differ in the type and scale of ES demand, the payment source, the type of activity paid for, the performance measure used, as well as the payment mode and amount. The effectiveness and efficiency of PES depends crucially on program design.     

关于金融危机的十个问题

一场对世界经济和金融体系产生深远影响的金融危机,正在全球不断蔓延开来。对中国来说,如何从这场全球性金融危机中吸取经验教训、总结理论启示,是我们面临的重要任务。全球金融危机产生的原因、实体经济与虚拟经济的关系、国际货币体系改革、国际金融秩序重建、金融创新与监管、政府干预与市场原则、投资银行出现危机的原因、金融高杠杆、资产证券化的未来以及货币政策的目标选择等与金融危机相关的10个问题,是我们在理论上应该作出进一步思考的问题。     

Popular Reaction to the Intervention by the IMF in the Korean Economic Crisis

The International Monetary Fund (IMF) has played an important role in restructuring the Korean economy over the past three years. Relying upon survey data collected in 1998 and 1999, we explore the role of the IMF in Korea as perceived by its citizens. In the eyes of the Korean people, the IMF helped their economy to recover from the crisis. However, those Koreans who experience a decline in their income are critical of the IMF's role in their economy. Finally, our analysis reveals that the generally pro-IMF orientation of most Korean people has little to do with their support for a market-oriented reform program.     

中国财政体制改革理论的回顾与展望

中国财政体制改革是财政改革的重要组成部分.反思财政改革的经验和教训,探索进一步改革方向,需要对相关理论进行回顾.本文理论综述主要围绕不同时期的财政体制改革问题展开进行,对计划经济条件下的财政体制改革理论综述,总结了从财政包干制到分税制改革的有关理论,对分税制改革之后财政体制的进一步改革的主要理论进行归纳,并对相关理论的发展进行了展望.