中国碳减排目标的可达性:能源政策与经济发展

2009年11月,中国国务院宣布到2020年,在2005年的基础之上将碳排放强度,即单位GDP二氧化碳排放量降低40%～45%。这一目标能否达成对于中国以及全球抵御气候变化都将产生深刻影响。分析我国能源消耗和经济发展的历史和现状,系统梳理到目前为止我国所制定和实施的能源政策,并结合情景分析预测了我国能否达到既定的碳排放强度削减目标。结果表明,我国实现减排目标是乐观的,但仍需要有针对性的政策导向。最后根据以上分析,对我国下一阶段的能源消耗和经济发展政策提出了相应建议,即加大科技支出,继续淘汰落后产能,推动先进生产技术应用;加大产业结构调整力度,大力发展第三产业;推动能源价格市场化进程。     

旅游线路产品能源消耗及二氧化碳排放量估算方法及实证分析

旅游业节能减排目标的实现需落实到旅游企业、旅游者的推广与实践方能实现。旅游线路一直是旅游市场的主力产品,然而对其能源消耗及CO2排放的评估却是空白。基于碳排放理论及游客消费特征,提出其能源消耗和CO2排放估算模型。以三种海南旅游产品为例,计算并分析各线路的能源消耗及CO2排放量。结果表明:各产品能源消耗及CO2排放量从大到小依次是行、食、住、游、购、娱;交通方式、从客源地到目的地距离、产品结构及能源类型是影响其能源消耗及排放量结构的主要因素;旅游活动产生的温室气体不容忽视;旅游业面临节能减排的压力。     

On the forecasting of the challenging world future scenarios

Logistic and power law methodologies for both retrospective and prospective analyses of extended time series describing evolutionary growth processes, in environments with finite resources, are confronted. While power laws may eventually apply only to the early stages of said growth process, the Allee logistic model seems applicable over the entire span of a long range process. On applying the Allee logistic model to both the world population and the world gross domestic product time series, from 1 to 2008 AD, a projection was obtained that along the next few decades the world should experience a new economic boom phase with the world GDP peaking around the year 2020 and proceeding from then on towards a saturation value of about 142 trillion international dollars, while the world population should reach 8.9 billion people by 2050. These results were then used to forecast the behavior of the supply and consumption of energy and food, two of the main commodities that drive the world system. Our findings suggest that unless the currently prevailing focus on economic growth is changed into that of sustainable prosperity, human society may run into a period of serious economical and social struggles with unpredictable political consequences.     

长三角地区碳排放影响因素分析——基于IPAT改进模型

随着经济发展、人口与能源消耗的增长,以及不合理的能源结构,导致了长三角地区碳排放的不断增加。文章以人口增长率、GDP增长率、能源消耗量、能源技术进步率、能源结构优化系数变动率为影响因素在对IPAT模型进行改进的基础上,对2006-2011年间长三角地区碳排放的影响因素进行定量分析。主要结论是长三角地区能源技术进步率与能源结构优化的减排作用还不能抵消人口与GDP的快速增长的影响,受能源结构优化系数变动比率逐步增加的影响,碳排放量受人口增长率与GDP增长率的影响呈逐年减小趋势,能源技术进步率与能源结构优化的减排作用日趋显著。     

A multi-factor efficiency perspective to the relationships among world GDP, energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions

Most of the research articles on climate change study the relationships between economic growth, and, carbon dioxide (CO₂) emission or energy consumption separately for analyzing the impacts of economic growth and energy consumption on global carbon dioxide emissions. In this paper, the linkages among CO₂ emissions, Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth and energy consumption are studied simultaneously using Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA). The time period considered for the study is 1980-2001. The results show that world in the year 1980 was the most efficient in achieving the highest economic growth, emitting least carbon dioxide for a given level of energy consumption for that year. The efficiency index reduced in the next 8 years, fluctuated with a declining trend for the next 7 years, and began to rise from 1996 till 2001. The model is further extended in this paper for technology forecasting to identify the links between energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions for achieving projected levels of GDP under two different assumptions on efficiency index. It has been identified using the forecasting model that, when the carbon dioxide emissions are restricted to the levels emitted in the year 1990 and when the efficiency index for the year 2025 is assumed to be at the level registered for the year 1980 (highest value), the non-fossil energy consumption needed to meet the GDP level projected for 2025 will be much smaller (35.46 quadrillion Btu for the reference GDP) than the values actually recorded in the year 1990 (44.59). However, the non-fossil energy consumption in 2025 (118.8) increases much more than the actual recorded in the year 1990 when the efficiency index in 2025 is assumed to be at the level registered for the year 1990.     

A multivariate time series analysis of energy consumption,real output and pollutant emissions in a developing economy: New evidence from Nepal

Mountain economies will have to play a central role in attaining the global pursuit of green economic growth as crucial bearers of ecosystems goods and services. However, these economies are not adequately represented in the development policy debates in spite of their fundamental importance towards global sustainable development. This study examines the inter relationships between energy consumption, output and carbon emissions in a developing mountainous economy using an augmented Vector Autoregression model. Time-series data over the period 1975–2013 is studied applying a multivariate framework using population and gross fixed capital formation as additional variables for Nepal. Testing for Granger causality between integrated variables based on asymptotic theory reveals a long-run unidirectional Granger causality running from GDP to energy consumption, and a unidirectional Granger causality running from carbon emissions to GDP. We suggest that the government of Nepal can address energy poverty by accelerating the adoption energy conservation policies such as rationing energy consumption and energy efficiency improvements to narrow the energy supply-demand gap. The opportunity to promote the uptake of decentralised off-grid renewable technologies in remote areas and the large scale development of hydropower at the national level also needs to be prioritized. Our results remain robust across different estimators and contributes to an emerging literature on the nexus relationships between energy consumption, income and carbon emissions in mountainous developing economies.     

Transition of the Chinese Economy in the Face of Deep Greenhouse Gas Emissions Cuts in the Future

China joined the Paris Agreement, and the global 2°C and 1.5°C warming targets will be supported by China. In order to achieve these targets, China's CO₂ emissions need to be cut deeply by 2050. The present paper presents studies from the integrated policy assessment model for China (IPAC) team about the impact on China's economic development of deep cuts in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, in order to realize the Paris climate change targets. With the requirement of deep cuts in GHG emissions in China, China's economic development will also be impacted in moving toward a low‐carbon or zero‐carbon emission‐based economy by 2050. This means the Chinese economy needs a strong transition over the next three decades, a relatively short time. All sectors in the economy need to seek ways to reduce GHG emissions, and this could change activities, industry processes and technologies in order to make the deep cuts in GHG emissions happen. This is the meaning of the economic transition toward to a low‐carbon economy. The findings of the present paper include: a significant transition in the energy supply sector; a high rate of electrification in all end‐use sectors; and a technology transition in the transport sector. Transitions will also occur in the traditional industrial sectors, including steel making, cement manufacture, and the chemical sector. The availability of low‐cost renewable energy could change the allocation of industries, which could potentially have a strong impact on regional economic development. Deep cuts in CO₂ emissions in China need not be a burden for economic development, as the IPAC results show there will be a more than 1.5% increase of gross domestic product by 2050 in the deep cut scenario compared with the baseline scenario.     

A decomposition analysis of CO2 emissions in the United States

This article decomposes the growth in US CO₂ emissions by state. Using the Logarithmic Mean Divisia Index (LMDI) method, we account for CO₂ emissions change in each state between 1990 and 2004. The change is decomposed into five effects: (a) emissions per unit of fossil fuel; (b) share of fossil fuel in total energy consumption; (c) energy intensity; (d) gross state product per capita and (e) population. Results show that for the past 15 years gains in the efficiency of energy use in the economy, the lowering share of fossil fuels in total energy consumption and lowering of emissions intensity of fuels all contributed to offsetting the effect of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capita and the population growth in carbon emission across the US.     

Trends in energy consumption and carbon dioxide emissions of passenger cars and buses

In this work we develop aggregate car ownership and bus fleet models in order to forecast and compare fuel consumption and CO₂ emissions from passenger cars and buses. Greece was selected as a case study, being a country fairly representative of lower-income Mediterranean and Eastern European countries and data were collected for the period 1970 to 2002. Percent adults in the population, per capita gross domestic product, inflation, unemployment, car occupancy and bus kilometers were predictors included in the car ownership and bus fleet multiple regression models. A shift in the overall trend of both models around 1995 was explained as a slope change of per capita gross domestic product, possibly reflecting the impact of a boom of the Greek Stock Market along with a retirement program for older vehicles. Predictor variables were forecast via Box-Jenkins and the models were subsequently used to develop car ownership and bus fleet forecasts to the year 2010. We predict that the contribution of cars to total CO₂ emissions will rise to an astounding 95% of total CO₂ emissions from road passenger transport (excluding taxis and mopeds), an effect expected in other Mediterranean and Eastern European countries with socioeconomic characteristics similar to Greece. Suggestions for further research include developing regional car ownership forecasts in order to compare the dynamics of different regions within a country and looking into other land transportation means (such as mopeds, taxicabs and railway).     

生育政策调整是否会影响我国“碳达峰”目标的实现?——基于STIRPAT和Leslie模型的实证研究

以中国人口生育政策调整为研究背景,基于STIRPAT模型和Leslie模型综合考察中国人口生育政策调整可能对实现“我国二氧化碳排放力争2030年前达到峰值”目标所带来的影响。结果表明,除了经济发展水平、能源技术水平、能源消费结构等因素外,人口年龄结构对人均碳排放也具有显著影响。在论文设置的四种生育率情景下,人口总量峰值分别出现在2025年、2027年、2031年和2027年。若生育政策调整能够有效提高社会总和生育率,人口规模和人口年龄结构的变化会使碳排放总量峰值推后出现。因此,中国逐步放宽的人口生育政策可能会给实现碳达峰目标带来一定压力。     

产品碳足迹及其国内外发展现状

气候变化已成为可持续发展的重要议题。低碳经济、低碳生活的号召下,产品生产及消费对环境的影响已渐渐引起人们的重视。产品碳足迹分析有助于企业真正了解产品对气候变化的影响,并由此采取可行的措施减少供应链中的碳排放。对碳足迹、产品碳足迹及产品碳足迹标识的相关概念进行介绍,分析国内、外有关产品碳足迹的发展现状和发展趋势。对社会普及碳足迹概念和引导更多中国企业实施产品碳足迹起到促进作用。     

Is Local Food More Environmentally Friendly? The GHG Emissions Impacts of Consuming Imported versus Domestically Produced Food

With the increased interest in the ‘carbon footprint’ of global economic activities, civil society, governments and the private sector are calling into question the wisdom of transporting food products across continents instead of consuming locally produced food. While the proposition that local consumption will reduce one’s carbon footprint may seem obvious at first glance, this conclusion is not at all clear when one considers that the economic emissions intensity of food production varies widely across regions. In this paper we concentrate on the tradeoff between production and transport emissions reductions by testing the following hypothesis: Substitution of domestic for imported food will reduce the direct and indirect Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions associated with consumption. We focus on ruminant livestock since it has the highest emissions intensity across food sectors, but we also consider other food products as well, and alternately perturb the mix of domestic and imported food products by a marginal (equal) amount. We then compare the emissions associated with each of these consumption changes in order to compute a marginal emissions intensity of local food consumption, by country and product. The variations in regional ruminant emissions intensities have profound implications for the food miles debate. While shifting consumption patterns in wealthy countries from imported to domestic livestock products reduces GHG emissions associated with international trade and transport activity, we find that these transport emissions reductions are swamped by changes in global emissions due to differences in GHG emissions intensities of production. Therefore, diverting consumption to local goods only reduces global emissions when undertaken in regions with relatively low emissions intensities. For non-ruminant products, the story is more nuanced. Transport costs are more important in the case of dairy products and vegetable oils. Overall, domestic emissions intensities are the dominant part of the food miles story in about 90 % of the country/commodity cases examined here.     

基于投入产出分析的旅游碳排放核算——以山东省为例

基于投入产出模型并从终端消费角度核算了2007年山东省旅游碳排放。结果表明：以隐含碳指标衡量,2007年山东省旅游碳排放总量为7.88MtC,其中国内旅游碳排放占93.07%,入境旅游碳排放占6.93%;以单位消费碳排放指标衡量并与最终使用相比较,在山东的旅游消费属于低碳消费;以人均碳排放指标衡量,入境旅游碳排放远高于国内旅游碳排放,同时国内旅游与入境旅游碳排放的差异也反映在碳源构成方面。由此建议山东省发展低碳旅游时关注入境旅游低碳产品的开发,以及在入境旅游碳减排中侧重建设低碳旅游交通,在国内旅游碳减排中提倡使用清洁的热力与电力。     

低碳经济的国际和国内影响因素分析

发展低碳经济是世界各国的必然选择,但在如何实现低碳发展问题上各国有不同的路径。从国际来看,碳排放强度与能源强度、石油消费结构、煤炭消费结构有显著正相关关系。从国内来看,中国的碳排放强度与能源强度和产业结构中第二产业比重相关。     

广东省化石燃料碳排放的地域差异

碳排放的研究是认识和发展低碳经济的基础。采用2000—2009年广东省化石燃料消费和人口、经济产出等数据,对广东省10年来化石燃料消费所产生的碳排放进行了估算,分析碳排放量在时间和空间变化上的地域差异,并采用因素分解法对碳排放的影响因素进行了定量分析。结果表明：①2000—2009年间广东省碳排放总量变化大、增长速度快,时序内表现出快速、平稳和稳定增长三个阶段性特征;工业部门是广东碳排放的主要力量,且行业差异性特征明显。②通过对广东省各地级市碳排放量的聚类分析得知,广州、深圳、东莞、佛山4城市和多年GDP变化类似,聚类于碳排放量最高的等级,和其他城市差距较大;广东省碳排放的变化在空间上呈现出＂中心—外围＂结构,表现出由集聚向扩散的演变规律。③能源结构、能源消耗强度、经济发展状况以及人口因素等是影响广东碳排放地域差异的主要因素。     

中国区域碳排放空间计量研究

如何从空间视角实现经济发展与碳减排双赢,是建设“美国中国”的重要推手,也是生态文明建设的必然要求。基于STIRPAT模型,从区域层面构建碳排放驱动因素扩展STIRPAT模型,并运用空间杜宾模型实证考察各驱动因素对碳排放规模和碳排放强度的影响。结果显示：地区间碳排放存在显著的示范和带头作用,驱动因素通过直接和间接途径影响碳排放,除能源价格外,其他影响因素均表现出显著性。因此,实现碳减排需要充分考虑空间相关性、异质性和外溢性,稳步推进城镇化进程,加大技术创新步伐,优化产业结构升级和能源消费结构,适度提高能源价格,在扩大对外开放的同时加大对外商投资的甄别。     

低碳经济引发的可再生能源思考

在全球应对气候变化的背景下,低碳经济的概念应运而生,并由此引发了人们对碳排放和低碳产业的高度重视。发展可再生能源将是人类走向低碳经济社会的重要途径之一。在未来世界发展的能源格局中,煤炭消费将在终端能源使用中逐渐减少,风能、太阳能等新型能源将逐渐占据主导地位。文章对低碳经济与可再生能源的关系进行简要论证,对我国可再生能源的现状、存在问题及未来发展进行分析,并针对可再生能源的发展提出建议。     

中国工业部门碳排放与GDP脱钩因素影响力分析

基于Tapio脱钩模型,对2000．2008年间中国工业部门碳排放与能耗脱钩、能耗与GDP脱钩对碳排放与GDP脱钩影响力进行了实证研究。结果表明：中国工业部门在实现碳排放与GDP脱钩上取得比较显著的成绩;能耗脱钩影响力均值为正,能耗受经济驱动较小对碳排放与GDP脱钩做出了相当的贡献;排放脱钩影响力均值为负,碳排放受能耗驱动力较为明显,对工业部门碳排放与GDP脱钩产生了负向影响。为使中国工业部门在碳排放与GDP脱钩上取得更显著的效果,应加大能耗与GDP脱钩力度,同时政府应大力支持碳捕集利用与封存等低碳和零碳技术研发与应用,逐步改善碳排放与能耗整体挂钩的态势。     

Energy consumption, economic growth, and carbon emissions: Challenges faced by an EU candidate member

This paper investigates the long run Granger causality relationship between economic growth, carbon dioxide emissions and energy consumption in Turkey, controlling for gross fixed capital formation and labor. The most interesting result is that carbon emissions seem to Granger cause energy consumption, but the reverse is not true. The lack of a long run causal link between income and emissions may be implying that to reduce carbon emissions, Turkey does not have to forgo economic growth.     

Examining the influencing factors of CO2 emissions at city level via panel quantile regression: evidence from 102 Chinese cities

Ascertaining the influencing factors of carbon dioxide emissions in Chinese cities is an important issue for policy-makers. This paper investigates the effect of several determinants on carbon emissions per capita in Chinese cities. Non-normally distributed and heterogeneous features of carbon emissions per capita in Chinese cities are considerably important. The empirical results demonstrate that GDP per capita has an increasingly positive impact on carbon emissions per capita due to the growth in household consumption. Urbanization has a slightly decreasing positive effect on carbon emissions per capita with a quantile increase resulting from continuous highway construction. Industrialization has a decreasing positive effect with carbon emission per capita quantile increases because of increasing energy efficiency and lower costs related to carbon reductions. The population has a decreasing negative effect on carbon emissions because of people’s increasing demand for environmental safety. The distributions of emissions per capita conditional on the 10th and 90th quantiles of independent variables also vary considerably. Specific policy implications are provided based on these results.