“差序格局”的不同阐释与再定位——“义”“利”混合之“人情”实践

对“差序格局”的不同阐释,都确认了义务、工具、情感(即义、利、情)三种关系要素。仅有的两个成熟理论模型,分别沿着“情——利”之一维或“情/义”之二维来进行关系分类,且均倾向于将“情”视作“差序格局”的核心性要素。本文则认为,将“情”包容于其中之“义”在价值层面上是“差序格局”之核心性要素,现实中“义利之辨”既紧张又交融的混合关系构成了“差序格局”的内在张力,且这种“义”“利”混合之“人情”实践决定了关系之“差序”进退。此种差序关系的不可分类性根本不同于西方个人主义文化中“情感性关系”与“工具性关系”的二元关系分类。     

人缘取向：中国人儒道互补的“关系”实践——兼论“差序格局”的性质再判定

儒家伦理的“义利之辨”构成了“差序格局”的内在核心张力。由此中国人在既有角色关系义利交织下的中庸式人际实践,常常体现为通过“克己复礼”的“和谐法则”化解名利资源矛盾,以维系相对和谐的“普通人缘关系”。在此基础之上,伦理化的交往获致关系发展则更多地致力于未来可能有长远利益回报而又不能明确预期之“施报法则”作用下的“恩义负欠关系”建构,以至于彼此相互施报的义利深化可能发展成为适用于“需求法则”的铁哥们式“深度感情关系”。由此,某种超越“社会自我主义”基础而趋于弹性动态化自然外推的“人缘取向”,充分展现了“我为人人,人人为我”之义利长远阴阳转化的拿捏进退之道,亦即某种中庸式“推己及人”而“义利共生”之儒道互补的深层文化传统。这构成了差序式人伦关系维系及拓展之“差序格局”的本质特征。     

新锐独白

“差序格局”这一概念对认识中国社会是卓为有效的，这两篇论文就“差序格局”所探讨的问题，起始于我在《中国社会心理评论》（第二辑）对黄光国先生“人情与面子”理论模型的评论。《“差序格局”的不同阐释与再定位》一文是对这篇评论基本观点的系统改写，     

浅谈我国现阶段的“依法治国”与“以德治国”

一、“依法治国”必须与“以德治国”密切结合 “德”、“法”之争，古已有之。我国历史上，春秋战国时期，围绕着“德治”与“法治”，“礼治”与“刑治”，“王道”与“霸道”，“仁政”与“暴政”的争论异常激烈，直到今天这种争论仍然存在。以孔孟为代表的儒家学派主张“德治”，提出要“为政以德”；但孔子也曾提出“政宽则民慢，慢则纠之以猛。猛则民残，残则施之以宽。宽以济猛，猛以济宽，政是以和。”以韩非为代表的法家学派主张“法治”，提出要“以法为教”，但韩非曾提出“誉辅其赏，毁随其罚”，“赏誉同轨，非诛俱行”的原则，强调道德舆论的毁誉必须与法的赏罚相协调。董仲舒则明确提出“德主刑辅”的思想。认为“刑者德之辅”，“教，政之本也，狱，政之末也”。而苟子则认为但靠赏庆刑罚不能尽人之力，教化不足万能的，主张教与诛、礼与刑相结合。总之，古人在如何处理德刑关系上，主要有“德主刑辅”，“刑主德辅”，“德刑结合”几种观点。事实上，两者有着密切的联系，相互促进，相互补充，相互作用。     

礼序政治:“大一统”叙事的回归与重构

在对“大一统”的形态化叙事中,依赖于现代权力政治所形成的观点不足以将“大一统”真正“去蔽”,应当返回到与“大一统”相契合的礼序政治的传统维度,对其予以重新解释.礼序政治将对中国政治本身的阐释引入传统语境中,一体沟通了传统范畴的观念背景、日常生活与政治构成,为重释“大一统”提供了逐层具象化的知识路径.在内在意蕴层面,“大一统”指涉的是一种与时间、天道相关的整体性秩序;在生活向度层面,“大一统”所指涉的整体性秩序以“礼”为根据,在日常生活的现实维度中展开,构成了礼序政治赖以运作的传统基础;在政治形态层面,对应于“礼”的宗法制及其拟制化,为“大一统”整体性秩序的体制构建及民间社会的嵌入开辟出存在空间.     

“以工哺农”、“以工促农”与我国传统农业现代化

在市场经济条件下,“以工哺农”主要是借政府“有形之手”实现工业对农业的利益回馈,“以工促农”则是借市场“无形之手”实现工业对农业的自然促动。推进我国传统农业的现代化,“以工哺农”与“以工促农”不可偏废,一方面要通过“以工哺农”来为“以工促农”创造条件,另一方面又要通过“以工促农”来引导“以工哺农”的方向。     

从“仁义礼”到现代经济制度

"仁义礼"是孔子经济思想的基础。在协调资源与人的欲望之间的矛盾的方法上,孔子主张通过教育,使民众具有"仁"的内在品质,从而在经济生活中能够自觉按照"义"的标准来行动,最终使整个社会的资源的配置能够达到"礼"的标准;而现代经济学理论,则主张事前设计一种公平合理的经济机制,使得人们在这种经济机制的框架下,追求自身利益最大化的过程中,自动实现社会资源的优化配置。孔子的经济思想依然有着其内在的价值,依然能够为转型期时期的中国提供协调社会矛盾的方法。     

“忍”与农民工身份认同研究——基于对重庆“棒棒”城市生活心态的深度访谈

在熟人社会,有关人际交往的"忍"往往与人情、面子、关系相关联,而在都市这样的陌生人社会,农民工与都市人的群际间冲突语境中的"忍"离不开成员对群体的身份归属问题。对重庆零散人力搬运从业者的研究考察了"棒棒"在城市生活中面对排斥和不公正待遇时的应对心态,分析他们以忍受御气的工具性和策略性,揭示在城乡二元结构下"忍"这种消解人际冲突的心理平衡机制对于"棒棒"这样的都市底层群体的意义和内涵,一方面深化了"忍"的相关心态研究,另一方面提出并尝试以"忍"的视角来开展农民工身份认同研究的进路。     

“自我主义”抑或“互以对方为重”——“差序格局”和“伦理本位”的一个尖锐分歧

在研究中国传统社会结构和传统中国人行为的领域中,费孝通所提出的“差序格局”和梁漱溟所提出的“伦理本位”大概是最具影响力的两个理论,它们之间既存在一些共通之处,也有一些深刻的分歧。其中最突出的分歧在于对中国人行为取向的判断,费孝通认为中国人是自私的,其行为可概括为“自我主义”;梁漱溟认为中国人不自私,而是“互以对方为重”。本文认为这一分歧的理论背景是20世纪上半叶的“民族性”大讨论,作为这一讨论的典型代表,“自我主义”和“互以对方为重”各存在一些理论上的得失之处。     

荀子“义分则和”礼学思想及其对构建和谐社会的意义

荀子用“分”与“和”表述“礼”与“和”的关系,从制度伦理的层面上回答了社会怎样才能实现和谐,进而提出了“义（以）分则和”思想,即合宜的制度安排是达到社会和谐的基础,这对构建社会主义和谐社会有着重要的启迪作用。     

Health, Wealth, Fertility, Education, and Inequality

The authors use a new cross-country dataset to estimate the strength of the links between different dimensions of social and economic development, including indicators of health, fertility, and education, as well as material wellbeing. This differs from previous studies in employing data for different income groups in each country in order to provide direct evidence on factors driving inequality, and in using a unique measure of material wellbeing that does not rely on PPP comparisons.     

Vicarelli,Keynes, and the unstable nexus between investment,liquidity, and finance

The goal of this article is to reconstruct Keynes’s vision of the unstable nexus between investment, liquidity and finance, as set out by the Italian economist Fausto Vicarelli (1936–1986). As argued in the article, one of Vicarelli’s main contributions consists of explaining the inherent instability of financially sophisticated capitalist economies in terms of the interaction (and double dissociation) between investment, saving, and stock-holding decisions, within a Keynesian framework characterized by the presence of fundamental uncertainty. While Vicarelli’s interpretation of Keynes is best understood in the context of the post-Keynesian literature, its relevance goes beyond that, as its sheds light on current issues related to the post-2008 financial crisis and its policy implications.     

Inflation,money, interest rate,exchange rate,and casuality: the case of Egypt,Morocco, and Tunisia

This study provides further evidence of the inflationary efects of the rates of growth of money supply, gross domestic product, efective exchange rate, and imported inflation for Egypt, Morocco, and Tunisia using quarterly data from 1964 to 1990. In addition, it examines the Granger causality between inflation and money supply as well as between inflation and the real exchange rate in the countries under consideration. Most of the results are consistent with extant theory and empirical evidence.     

IPR,Trade, FDI,and Technology Transfer

In this survey, we discuss how intellectual property rights （IPR） protection in the South affects trade flows, foreign direct investment （FDI） flows, and technology transfers from the North to the South. We also discuss optimal IPR policies and their effect on innovation. Our discussion covers both theoretical studies and empirical evidence. This survey is both comprehensive and critical. It aims to give readers the current state of IPR and globalization literature. Some issues have been studied more thoroughly, whereas for others the surface has only been scratched upon. This survey gives readers a clearer picture of the literature and may help them find future research topics.     

Trade,Remittances, Institutions,and Economic Growth

This paper empirically investigates the role of trade, remittances, and institutions in economic development in a large sample of developing countries using recently developed instruments for all these variables. Both cross-country (over 30 years) and dynamic panel data (over 5-year periods) regressions of growth rates on instrumented trade, remittances, and institutions provide evidence of a significant impact of trade, institutions, and remittances on growth. While institutions foster growth, remittances hamper it. The effect of trade on growth is positive in cross-sectional regressions but ambiguous in dynamic panel data regressions. These results are indicative of a more important role for trade in explaining growth in the very long run compared with over shorter horizons.     

Complementarity, growth, and trade

We consider an endogenous growth model with international trade in complementary capital goods. The model possesses several distinct, balanced growth solutions, which we classify using stability under adaptive learning. Some of the equilibria can involve growth rates much higher than others. We show that, in addition to a small (usually positive) effect on a given equilibrium, an expansion in trade may sometimes yield a much larger, sudden jump in growth. The small effect on the initial equilibrium may reduce growth if the opportunity cost of capital rises very fast as growth accelerates. JEL Classification: F12, F15, O41
Complémentarité, croissance, et commerce international. Les auteurs utilisent un modèle de croissance endogène en présence de commerce international de biens capitaux complémentaires. Le modèle possède plusieurs solutions de croissance équilibrée distinctes que les auteurs classifient en utilisant des mesures de stabilité avec apprentissage adaptatif. Certains de ces équilibres peuvent impliquer des taux de croissance plus élevés que d'autres. Il appert qu'une expansion du commerce international, en plus d'avoir un petit effet (habituellement positif) sur un équilibre donné, peut parfois engendrer une augmentation plus forte et soudaine de la croissance. Le petit effet sur l'équilibre initial peut réduire la croissance si le coût d'opportunité du capital augmente rapidement à proportion que la croissance accélère.     

Ecosystems,externalities, and economies

This paper incorporates an ecosystem model into a model of a simple economy. The decisionmaking agents in the ecosystem are individual organisms aggregated to the species level. A species may provide utility directly to humans, or it may provide utility indirectly because it is used either as a raw material in goods fabrication or as sustenance for other species. We describe a comparative static equilibrium of the ecosystem where species' demands for other species are equal to the supplies of those other species, and energy is conserved. The ecosystem is then embedded in the economy so that the effects of human intervention can be traced through both the ecosystem and the economy. Human intervention creates ecosystem externalities such that ecosystem equilibria are shifted and the new equilibria affect the utility or the production processes of other humans. This framework allows us to describe in principle which ecosystem services can be efficiently usurped by humans, which waste flows can be efficiently allowed into ecosystems, and which ecosystem organisms and physical attributes can be efficiently maintained.     

Anarchy, efficiency, and redistribution

This paper develops a contractarian theory of the state and the existence of redistribution. The existence of rules of redistribution is explained without any recourse to the risk-aversion of agents. No veil of ignorance is needed. This avoids obligational problems inherent in most other contractarian theories of justice. Hence, this paper departs from the standard legitimization of redistribution as fundamental insurance and interprets it as stemming from a principle of reciprocity in trade. Since this paper deals with an anarchic society, the implementation of redistributional rules is constrained by the assumption of self-enforcement. We show that this assumption changes the interpretation of the state: the state is characterized by a particular design of equilibrium strategies, not by the existence of enforcement agencies.     

Min, Max, and Sum

This paper provides characterization theorems for preferences that can be represented by U(x₁, …, x_n)=min{x_k}, U(x₁, …, x_n)=max{x_k}, U(x₁, …, x_n)=∑ u(x_k), or combinations of these functionals. The main assumption is partial separability, where changing a common component of two vectors does not reverse strict preferences, but may turn strict preferences into indifference. We discuss applications of our results to social choice. Journal of Economic Literature Classification Numbers: C0, D1, D6.