Performance of foreign direct investment from Singapore

This study was conducted with two broad aims: to assess the performance levels attained by foreign direct investment (FDI) undertaken by Singapore firms and to identify the key determinants of the performance levels attained. We employed a broad set of perceptual measures, as reported by the MNC parent managers, to assess the performance of foreign subsidiaries. The measures included: stability, profitability, overall success, market share and sales growth. We hypothesized that the performance of (FDI) will be influenced by the following factors: mode of entry, cultural distance, relative size of the subsidiary and host government attitudes. Based on an analysis of 128 responses to a survey, we find that Singapore firms’ foreign subsidiaries achieve moderate levels of performance. The data analysis also revealed that FDI performance was positive under the following conditions: the host government attitudes were positive and the subsidiaries were of large size relative to the parent.     

The impact of inward FDI on local companies’ labour productivity: evidence from the Italian case

The article aims to investigate the impact of inward foreign direct investment (FDI) occurring through acquisition upon the local target company’ performance, as measured by labour productivity. It relies upon the idea that multinational enterprises (MNEs) act as a device to transfer firm‐specific proprietary assets, thus causing their subsidiaries to exhibit better performance than their host country rivals. Specifically, our results show that foreign acquisitions generally increase the local target companies’ labour productivity in the medium term after the acquisition. The empirical evidence refers to foreign acquisitions that occurred in Italy in the period 1994–1997.     

Target reputation transferability,consumer animosity,and cross-border acquisition success: A comparison between China and Taiwan

This study examines the effects of consumer animosity and reputation transferability of local targets on cross-border acquisitions by analyzing host country consumer responses toward the acquisitions of local firms by foreign multinational corporations (MNCs). This work compares two host country markets: the responses of Chinese (high animosity against Japan) and Taiwanese consumers (low animosity against Japan) toward acquisition of a local firm by a Japanese MNC. The findings show that Chinese consumers demonstrate attitudes that are more negative toward the post-acquisition target, and lower intentions to repurchase products of the post-acquisition target than Taiwanese consumers. This work further observes that in a host-country market with low animosity, reputation transfer of a local target is pronounced, whereas, in a host country market with high animosity, consumer animosity will restrain or even exceed reputation transferability. Experiment results reveal consistent support for these hypotheses. Implications and limitations of the findings are also discussed.     

Paying for cross-border acquisitions: The impact of prior acquirers’ decisions

By examining the premiums paid by acquiring firms in cross-border acquisitions (CBAs), this study aims to determine why they might rely on prior premium decisions in the host market rather than rigorous assessments of the deal. An information-based imitation framework offers an explanation for foreign acquirers’ premium decisions. The developed hypotheses are tested with 2350 CBAs that occurred during 1995–2008. The results show that the premium paid by acquiring firms in CBAs relates positively to prior premiums paid by foreign acquirers in that host country. This imitation behavior is influenced by both organization- and offering-level characteristics.     

Cross-border mergers and acquisitions vs. greenfield foreign direct investment: The role of firm heterogeneity

We develop a general equilibrium model with heterogeneous firms to address two sets of questions: (1) what are the characteristics of firms that choose the various modes of foreign market access (exporting, greenfield FDI, and cross-border M&A), and (2) how does the international organization of production vary across industries and country-pairs? We show that the answers to these questions depend on the nature of firm heterogeneity. Depending on whether firms differ in their mobile or immobile capabilities, cross-border mergers involve the most or the least efficient active firms. The comparative statics on industry and country characteristics display a similar dichotomy.     

How do firms evolve? The patterns of technological evolution of semiconductor subsidiaries

This study draws on concepts from international strategy and evolutionary economics to investigate the development of innovative ability within multinational subsidiaries. The paper develops hypotheses regarding the evolution of subsidiary innovative abilities, and the changes across time of their knowledge sourcing and sharing patterns with other parts of the multinational enterprise and host country firms.The paper analyzes patent data pertaining to foreign subsidiaries of US semiconductor firms and finds support for subsidiary technological development—there are positive changes in the scale and scope of innovative activity across time. The results also suggest that subsidiaries are increasingly embedded in host country knowledge networks—as they mature, subsidiaries increasingly learn and share knowledge locally. Evidence of increasing integration with other firms within the multinational enterprise is weaker.     

Which Targets Stimulate Cross-border Acquisitions? An Empirical Investigation of Industrial Organization and Trade Factors within a Competition Framework of International and Domestic Acquisition Targets

This paper provides new evidence on the determinants affecting cross-border acquisitions in a small open economy such as that of Greece. Specifically, our paper tests two sets of hypotheses: Firstly, factors stemming from industrial organization (IO) theory, such as market structure indicators of takeover targets, positively affect the decision of a foreign Transnational Corporation (TNC) to enact a takeover in Greece. Secondly, factors stemming from integration and trade theory, such as openness of targets, increase their significance in the development of international takeovers, due to the active participation of the country in the European integration process. Using a statistical model of “international vs. national targets” and an original data set of 229 targets during the 1989–1998 period, the paper finds, most importantly, that market structure indicators such as market share of targets have a positive effect on the acquisition decision of foreign TNCs. Also, some control variables such as firm size and liquidity of targets are found to be statistically significant. This specific pattern of foreign target characteristics is because cross-border acquisitions, which have been emerging as a new generation of FDI after the integration of Greece into the European Union (EU), are surprisingly still inclined to prefer the market-seeking motive to the efficiency-seeking motive.

Traces of foreign retailers – local knowledge-spillovers and strategy adaption within retail internationalization

ABSTRACT

Since the 1990s certain retail companies have evolved into some of the largest and most dispersed transnational corporations worldwide. However, within the ‘new era of retail distribution’ retailers are increasingly divesting from foreign markets. This study addresses these recent and under-explored dynamics by revealing the traces transnational retail corporations leave after divesting from a country. It explores the aspect of learning of host market retailers from entering transnational corporations (TNCs) and examines how foreign knowledge is adjusted in the business strategies of these local actors. It takes a fresh empirical slant using qualitative interviews with host market retail managers including former TNCs’ subsidiaries operating under domestic ownership. The emerging economy of Turkey serves as an empirical example. The paper finds that foreign retailers transfer firm-specific resources to the local retail through (1) demonstration and imitation, (2) vertical linkages with suppliers, (3) joint ventures and acquisitions, and (4) labor turnover of TNC trained staff. Certain successful local companies adjust the foreign knowledge based on their local knowledge and strengths, their high level of flexibility and deep territorial embeddedness, and create ‘hybrid’ business strategies. These findings suggest that dynamic capabilities are crucial to successful retailing in an international competitive environment. TNC managers should work with local staff in partnerships of equals and managers of locally operating companies should incorporate new knowledge by hiring TNC trained staff.     

The stock market performance of exploration-oriented and exploitation-oriented cross-border mergers and acquisitions: Evidence from emerging market enterprises

This study builds on insights from mergers and acquisitions (M&A) studies and the perspective that stock market performance is affected by the M&A strategies of firms. Past studies show that acquisitions are an effective way to exploit existing knowledge and explore new possibilities. We argue that stock market performance can be a response to exploration/exploitation strategies in the context of cross-border M&As by emerging market multinationals. Based on cross-border M&A data of Chinese multinationals, we find that exploration-oriented acquisitions have worse stock market performance than exploitation-oriented acquisitions. Furthermore, we find support for our premise that acquiring firms can reduce the risk of exploration-oriented acquisitions by having more high-discretion slack resources or by maintaining a high level of equity share of the target firm. In addition, acquiring firms perform better if they conduct exploration-oriented acquisitions in related industries. Our results contribute to a better understanding of exploration and exploitation in the context of M&As.     

Similarities and differences among cross-border M&A and greenfield FDI determinants: Evidence from Asia and Oceania

Firms choose either cross-border M&A or greenfield foreign direct investment (FDI) when expanding their operations overseas. In this study, by focusing on Japanese firms pursuing FDI in emerging countries in Asia and Oceania, we provide empirical evidence of the similarities and differences in cross-border M&A and greenfield FDI determinants. We derive the following four main conclusions. First, an increase in host-country population size and decreases in per capita income and corporate tax rates generally attract both inward cross-border M&A and greenfield FDI to the host country. Second, however, a home-country firm tends to choose cross-border M&A rather than greenfield FDI when the host country sufficiently implements shareholder rights laws and the firm tends to choose greenfield FDI rather than cross-border M&A when the host country adequately enforces intellectual property rights laws. Third, a firm tends to choose greenfield FDI when the firm already has regional networks in the host country and choose cross-border M&A when the purpose of the firm's overseas operations is to establish sales distribution channels. Finally, a firm pursuing cross-border M&A experiences higher cumulative abnormal returns in its stock prices following the investment, while a firm pursuing greenfield FDI experiences increases in its stock prices immediately before the investment.     

Do cross-border mergers and acquisitions increase short-term market performance? The case of Chinese firms

Despite the new momentum in cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As) by emerging market firms, we have a limited understanding of the impact of these activities. Drawing on signalling theory and the institution-based view, this paper examines the extent of stock market reactions to the announcement of cross-border M&A deals, based on an event study of a sample of Chinese firms during the period 2000–2012. The findings indicate that the announcement of cross-border M&As results in a positive stock market reaction; this effect is more significant in the mainland Chinese stock markets (Shanghai and Shenzhen) than that in the Hong Kong market. The shareholders of Chinese firms that acquire a target firm in a host country with a low level of political risk gain higher cumulative abnormal returns than those firms targeting companies in countries with a high level of political risk. The shareholders of Chinese state-owned enterprises experience lower abnormal returns compared with those of Chinese privately owned firms when engaging in cross-border M&A deals.     

Small and medium-sized transnational corporations: Trends and patterns of foreign direct investment

This paper provides an analysis of small and medium-sized transnational corporations (TNCs). Statistical evidence is provided on trends and patterns of foreign direct investment (FDI) by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). There are virtually no countries for which consistent and systematic FDI data are available by firm size, but data complied by or made available to the author for the UNCTAD Programme on Transnational Corporations allow an analysis of broad characteristics, trends and patterns.FDI by SMEs is more concentrated in developed countries than that by large TNCs. However, small and medium-sized TNCs, especially those from Japan, are increasingly investing in developing countries. Although absolute size of FDI is still small, SMEs account for a large share in terms of the number of investment cases and the number of parent firms. South and East Asia became the primary host region of small and medium-sized TNCs during the 1980s and early 1990s. The industrial distribution of FDI by SMEs in developing countries is quite wide, but concentrated in electrical goods, chemicals, textiles and some services industries. SMEs also engage in non-equity investments.Transnational Corporations Affairs Officer United Nations Conference on Trade and Development Geneva, SwitzerlandThe author is grateful for advice and comments by Hafiz Mirza     

The limits of firm-level globalization: Revisiting the FSA/CSA matrix

Multinational enterprises (MNEs) engaging in foreign direct investment (FDI) need advantages allowing them to offset the liability of foreignness in host countries. This liability of foreignness gives rise to additional operational costs related to economic, institutional, and cultural differences between home and host countries. MNEs therefore need to own or control firm-specific advantages (FSAs) that, along with country-specific advantages (CSAs) and internalization advantages, affect international business transactions. In this paper, we revise Rugman’s classic FSA/CSA matrix to better reflect how firms bundle their assets with CSAs. We further contribute to the prior debate on the linkages between the global factory paradigm and internalization theory by empirically evaluating the validity of a key proposition associated with the global factory, namely that FDI becomes relatively less important as a building block of the modern MNE. We do so using data on FDI and cross-border mergers and acquisitions, a major component of FDI.     

Greenfield FDI,cross-border M&As,and government size

This study examines the effects of greenfield foreign direct investment (FDI) and cross-border mergers and acquisitions (M&As) on government size in host countries of FDI. Using panel data for up to 130 countries for the period from 2003 to 2011, the study specifically tests the compensation hypothesis, suggesting that by increasing economic insecurity, economic openness leads to larger government size. It is found that greenfield FDI increases labour market volatility and thereby economic insecurity while M&As are not significantly associated with labour market volatility. The main results of this study are that greenfield FDI has a robust positive effect on government size, while M&As have no statistically significant effect on government size in the total sample of developed and developing countries, as well as in the sub-samples of developed and developing countries.     

Endogenous market structures and the gains from foreign direct investment

This paper discusses the gains from liberalizing foreign direct investment (FDI) in a two-country setting with endogenous market structure. We investigate two different scenarios. In the first scenario, headquarters costs are large in the foreign country so that the industry is located in the domestic country only. In this case, multinational and national firms may coexist and market concentration may make FDI welfare improving for the foreign country and welfare reducing for the domestic country. In the second scenario, headquarters costs are symmetric and firms will be located in both countries. Here, profitable FDI activities lead to mutual welfare gains, irrespective of market structure effects.     

Wealth effects on cross-border acquisition firms from emerging economies

Cross-border acquisitions (CBAs), as a corporate expansion strategy, are being espoused by emerging market firms (EMFs) to overcome their competitive disadvantage at the global level. The objective of this paper is to analyse the wealth effects of cross-border acquisition announcement on the acquiring firms from emerging economies during the period of 2001–17. Wealth effects have been measured in terms of short-term change in equity prices (investors' reaction) around the public announcement of 553 and 125 overseas acquisitions by Indian and Chinese listed firms respectively. The investors' reaction to the acquisition of a foreign target has been captured using the event study methodology. Further, a disaggregated analysis has been conducted to gauge the impact of various deal-specific factors, the legal structure of the target firm and the development status of the target country on the wealth creation potential of a cross-border acquisition.Both Indian and Chinese investors have responded favourably to the announcement of international acquisitions as exhibited in significant and positive average abnormal returns of 0.71% and 0.23% respectively on the event day. Further, it is revealing to note that investors in these economies differ widely with regard to their perception pertaining to the method of payment and acquisition strategy. At the same time, the extent of wealth creation is higher when acquired firms are based in developed economies possessing high quality resources and advanced technology along with better institutional and regulatory milieu; Indian as well as Chinese markets have experienced larger abnormal returns on acquiring advanced vis-à-vis developing market firms.     

A comparative analysis of the role of national culture on foreign market acquisitions by U.S. firms and firms from emerging countries

Do firms from emerging economies differ from U.S. firms in their foreign market acquisition strategies? A comparison of cross-border acquisitions by firms from the United States and 18 emerging countries shows that (1) firms from both the United States and emerging countries target countries that are culturally closer to their home countries, (2) a strong interaction effect occurs between market potential and cultural distance for emerging country firms as the market potential increases (i.e., at high market potential, firms from emerging economies are willing to overlook cultural distance), (3) no interaction effect occurs between market potential and cultural distance for U.S. firms, and (4) different cultural dimensions affect the market entry strategies of U.S. firms and firms from emerging countries.     

Cross-Border Mergers & Acquisitions Policy in Service Markets

We provide facts showing that in service markets: (i) restrictions on foreign direct investment (FDI) are under reform, (ii) cross-border Mergers & Acquisitions dominate as the entry mode of FDI, and (iii) there is often a high market concentration. Based on these facts, we present a model for analyzing cross-border merger and acquisition policy in liberalized service markets taking into account efficiency and market power effects. Our findings suggest that a merger policy, but not a discriminatory policy towards foreigners, seems warranted. Moreover, policies ensuring competition for domestic target firms seem warranted. In this vein, harmonization of the EU takeover regulations may particularly benefit assets owners in countries with many target firms.     

Links between foreign direct investment and human capital formation: Evidence from the manufacturing sector in India

This paper is related to the literature on the effect of foreign direct investment (FDI) on the labour market of host countries. Labour market literature has focused on the demand side of FDI; that is, increasing wage inequality by demanding more skilled workers or just increasing the overall average wages. On the supply side, FDI can enrich the skilled labour force of the host country by the provision of on-the-job training or learning or through indirect technological spillover effects. This paper takes into account both these effects and tests for human capital formation effect of FDI in India for core manufacturing sector firms for the period 2001–2015 using the Prowess database of the Centre for Monitoring Indian Economy. It also takes into account the endogeneity of decision-making on the part of foreign firms in locating FDI. Different dynamic panel data methods are used with static and dynamic generalized method of moments techniques. This study does not find any positive supply-side human capital formation effects of FDI but finds a positive demand-side effect of FDI of raising wage inequality and average wages. The results remain robust while taking into account heterogeneities at region, industry, size, and age of the firms.     

The effect of investor origin on firm performance: Domestic and foreign direct investment in the United States

This paper evaluates the causal relationship between the source of origin of FDI and the performance of the target firm. The empirical analysis uses new data on a comprehensive sample of public U.S. firms that received FDI between 1979 and 2006. To account for the possibility that performance differences arise due to the selection of superior target firm rather than the change in ownership, I use propensity score matching to create similar comparison groups of target firms prior to acquisitions. The analysis reveals three major findings. First, acquiring firms from industrialized countries lead to labor productivity increases of 13% in the target firm three years after the acquisition compared to targets acquired by domestic firms. Firms that received developing country firm acquisitions, on the other hand, exhibit lower labor productivity gains four years after acquisition, compared to targets acquired by domestic firms. Second, targets receiving FDI by firms from industrial and developing countries also experience increases in profits, compared with firms receiving acquisition by domestic firms from the United States. Third, compared with domestic acquisitions, foreign industrial firm acquisition FDI tends to increase their targets' employment and sales, whereas targets acquired by firms located in developing countries experience a decrease in both revenues and total number of employees. These findings suggest that target firms are subject to significantly different restructuring processes depending on the origin of the acquiring firm.