The Expatriate Glass Ceiling: The Second Layer of Glass

The corporate glass ceiling continues to be a challenge for many organizations. However, women executives may be facing a second pane of obstruction – an expatriate glass ceiling – that prevents them from receiving the foreign management assignments and experience that is becoming increasing critical for promotion to upper management. The responsibility to break the expatriate glass ceiling lies with both female managers and the multinational corporations that utilize expatriates. In this paper, we propose pre-assignment, on-assignment, and post-assignment strategies for breaking the expatriate glass ceiling.     

Breaking the Glass Ceiling in Nigeria: A Review of Women's Entrepreneurship

The relevance of the age-long conundrum known as the glass ceiling has become ever more questionable for a number of compelling reasons. First, its root in the invisible barriers (push factors) facing women's career progression prospects in the corporate world is ever-changing at a rapid pace across every region of the globe. Second, research shows some evidence of a major dramatic increase in women-owned businesses as being attributable to women's desire to gain more flexibility in their work arrangements (pull factors). By providing a catalogue of pull factors in the context of African (especially Nigerian) women entrepreneurs, this paper argues that the glass ceiling problem may have well been shattered in numerous spheres, and thus become less tenable as a gender-specific reality in the twenty-first century.     

Discrimination, Harassment, and the Glass Ceiling: Women Executives as Change Agents

In this article, we discuss the relationships between discrimination, harassment, and the glass ceiling, arguing that many of the factors that preclude women from occupying executive and managerial positions also foster sexual harassment. We suggest that measures designed to increase numbers of women in higher level positions will reduce sexual harassment. We first define and discuss discrimination, harassment, and the glass ceiling, relationships between each, and relevant legislation. We next discuss the relationships between gender and sexual harassment, emphasizing the influence of gender inequality on sexual harassment. We then present recommendations for organizations seeking to reduce sexual harassment, emphasizing the role that women executives may play in such efforts and, importantly, the recursive effects of such efforts on increasing the numbers of women in higher level positions in organizations.     

A model of consumer's retail atmosphere perceptions

The authors propose a new model of the effects of four perceived atmosphere constructs on hedonic and utilitarian shopping evaluations. Survey data demonstrate that the perceived atmosphere constructs are positively associated with both hedonic and utilitarian evaluations of retail shopping value. Importantly, the relationship between the customer's perception of the store's level of sophistication (perceived style) and the customer's overall assessment that the store is a pleasant place (perceived overall atmosphere) is different for different retail brands. The results suggest that the relationship between constructs can be used to detect differentiation between retail brands.     

The Current Status of Women in US Department Store Retailing: 2004

This study replicates the work of Gable, Fiorito and Topol () that examined the status of women in managerial ranks of department store organizations. Women now constitute 67% of all lower-level management positions, approximately 45% of middle-level positions, and 24% of those positions at upper levels. While some progress has been made since the 1994 study, females are not close to parity with males at the highest level positions. Further, a comparison was made of the gender composition of the boards of directors of the 25 largest industrial organizations (in annual sales volume) with that of the 25 department store organizations.     

Afro-Diasporic women navigating the black ceiling: Individual,relational, and organizational strategies

In this article, we describe how the black ceiling—upheld by the powerful institutional logics of patriarchy and white supremacy, inordinately challenging and interlocking systemic barriers to leadership advancement—leads to the dearth of Afro-Diasporic women in senior corporate leadership positions and pathologizes Afro-Diasporic women as multiple outsiders. As a result, Afro-Diasporic women’s well-being in the workplace is compromised and many adopt coping and survival strategies to navigate a myriad of relational and environmental phenomena, such as spirit murder, emotional taxation, social closure, white privilege, and white fragility. To navigate and ameliorate these dynamics, we advance several individual, relational, and organizational strategies that support Afro-Diasporic women thriving in the workplace.     

The evolving direct-to-consumer retail model: A review and research agenda

The substantial growth of e-commerce sales, driven by digital advancements, has enticed brands to sell direct-to-consumers (DTC) online. Despite the growth of the DTC online retail model in practice, academic literature remains fragmented. This systematic review is timely as it meets the need for a comprehensive understanding of the evolution of DTC over two decades of research to 2023. A SPAR-4-SLR protocol combined with a Theory–Context–Methods (TCM) approach examines the extant literature through a marketing lens. An analysis of 81 articles reveals a need for consumer behavior theories to underpin research on the DTC retail model. We conclude the review by identifying areas for further development, such as the need for research on the technology-driven balance of power between brands, retailers, and consumers. Contextually, the authors highlight research opportunities on SME brands' internationalization and the DTC online luxury experience. Methodological directions include empirical qualitative studies and experiments on the emerging topics of technology-enabled retail services and the experiential e-commerce impact on customer experience. These future research undertakings will help us to better understand the DTC retail model.     

A score-driven model of short-term demand forecasting for retail distribution centers

Forecasting is one of the fundamental inputs to support planning decisions in retail chains. Frequently, forecasting systems in retail are based on Gaussian models, which may be highly unrealistic when considering daily retail data. In addition, the majority of these systems rely on point forecasts, limiting their practical use in retailing decisions, which often requires the full predictive density for decision making. The main contribution of this paper is the modeling of daily distribution centers (DCs) level aggregate demand forecasting using a recently proposed framework for non-Gaussian time series called score-driven models or Generalized Autoregressive Score (GAS) models. An experimental study was carried out using real data from a large retail chain in Brazil. A log-normal GAS model is compared to usual benchmarks, namely neural networks, linear regression, and exponential smoothing. The results show the GAS model is a competitive alternative to retail demand forecasting in daily frequency, with the advantage of producing a closed form predictive density by construction.     

A cross‐national validation of a new retail customer equity model

This study aims to examine retail customers of China and Korea with a view to understanding the differences in the effects of customer equity on perceived store loyalty. We built a modified model of retail customer equity incorporating three drivers of retail customer equity (experience equity, brand equity and relationship equity), and further substantiate the relationships among the three equity drivers. For this purpose, we measured the customer equity of large scale discount stores located in China and Korea. The result shows that experience equity and brand equity significantly influence customer loyalty, whereas relationship equity does not. The relationships among the three drivers of customer equity revealed that experience equity significantly affects both brand and relationship equities, but relationship equity does not significantly affect brand equity. Based on country level analysis, on Korean side the experience equity influences relationship equity, brand equity and store loyalty, whereas on Chinese side, experience equity influences relationship equity and brand equity,     

A relational performance model for developing innovation and long-term orientation in retail franchise organizations

A relational performance model is developed to show how innovation and long-term orientation can be evaluated and monitored within franchised retail service organizations. Using principles of justice from social exchange theory as a guide, our performance model measures how franchisee entrepreneurial passion (EP) and perceptions of fairness help to promote innovation and long-term commitment across retail franchise organizations. We test our model using data collected from one large U. S. retail service organization ($5B+ annual revenue) and its independent franchise operators. We discover that targeting distributive justice (or fairness) helps to leverage the EP of the independent operators for promoting innovation, while both procedural and distributive elements of the organizational justice climate help to enhance franchisee's long-term commitment. Moreover, we find that retail franchise operators perceive organizational justice differently than do corporate district managers, which suggests several important implications for both research and practice.     

Analysing retail failure from an historical perspective: A case study of A. Goldberg & Sons plc

Organisational failure has been considered from various perspectives in the academic literature, but there has been less focus on the causes of retail failure. This paper considers the case of A. Goldberg and Sons plc, a retail organisation which, prior to its demise in 1990, had grown from a single Glasgow store in 1908 to a chain of over 100 outlets. Drawing on annual reports, interviews with former directors, and the contents of a company archive, the paper provides evidence of the key factors and decisions that led to the firm's failure. Various internal and external pressures, including over-expansion into new retail space and the general economic downturn, effected Goldberg's ‘failure’.     

The influence of related and unrelated industry diversity on retail firm failure

The purpose of this paper is to analyse the influence of related and unrelated industry diversity on retail firm failure with a focus on Swedish retailers. The paper develops competing hypotheses from organizational theory and the economics of agglomeration concerning the survival chances of retail firms located in geographic proximity. Hypotheses are tested using a hazard model and a sample of 48,953 retail firms observed during 2002–2010. Key findings show that increases in the local share of similar retail firms is positively related to the risk of failure while there is a negative relation between increases in local industry diversity and the risk of failure. These results indicate that knowledge transfer from a diverse set of industries are important in lowering the failure risk. Differentiating among small and specialized retail firms indicate that there is significant intra-industry heterogeneity in the influence of local industrial composition on the likelihood of failure.     

A framework for SME retail branding

Abstract

It has become increasingly important for small to medium sized enterprise (SME) retailers to stand out in the current marketplace. Branding in SMEs is a growing area of academic interest, although the majority of studies have been based in the manufacturing sector. This study seeks to develop a framework of the characteristics, processes and dynamics of SME retailers. A qualitative research study was carried out with SME owner managers (OMs) over a period of 15 months. The findings extend the understanding of branding in SMEs in a number of ways. Firstly, it is found that SME retailers take a cautious approach to brand management, seeking to build loyalty, networks and relationships. Secondly, the holistic nature of SME retail branding presents a challenge to OMs who are resource-constrained. Thirdly, the soft, colloquial and intuitive approaches to brand equity appraisal are evident. Brand marketing is focused on word of mouth, which has implications for how OMs operationalise the brand around store experiences. Finally, the influence of the OM on branding decisions is clear. The key findings are discussed in relation to the retail context of the study, the centricity of the OMs in SME branding and entrepreneurial brand management.     

Female Managers in Taiwan: Opportunities and Barriers in Changing Times

Women workers' chances of becoming managers, and their experiences once promoted to that level, are increasingly important in Taiwan, a region that is in the throes of socio- economic and legal change. While it is clear that there are proportionally more male than female managers in Taiwan, little systematic research has been undertaken to investigate the reasons for this under-representation of women. The authors' exploratory study suggests that the work–family conflict and Taiwanese cultural values contribute to the barriers female employees encounter in their climb up the organizational hierarchy and may lead to the depression of their career ambitions; however, a proportion of the female managers interviewed felt that their promotional opportunities and their experiences as managers had improved significantly in their generation. The authors make suggestions to guide future research on women managers in Taiwan.     

Retail internationalization and retail failure: issues from the case of Marks and Spencer

Notwithstanding the importance of retailing to urban economies, the role of retailing in the marketing of urban places has been an area neglected by both academics and practitioners alike. It is acknowledged that the principles of marketing can be applied (albeit with modification) to the context of urban places. The theoretical implications of this are considered using Corsico's () metaphors of the city as enterprise, market and commodity. Such issues are considered via a survey of place marketing actors within the specific context of the marketing of towns and cities as shopping destinations in urban places classified as sub-regional and above. Particular attention is paid to responsibility for the marketing of the retail provision, the emphasis given to retail in the marketing/promotional activities of various urban stakeholders, the perceived role of retailing, and the factors influencing the nature of the urban retail provision. Promotion of retailing was found to be important for all urban stakeholders to a greater or lesser degree. However, prime responsibility lay with town centre managers and shopping centre managers. The implications for both theory and practice are discussed.     

A cross-cultural analysis of price responses to environmental changes

In planning the marketing mix for a product, managers implicitly respond to changes in both their internal and external environments. This paper studies managers' judgments of how they would respond to changes in their own product costs asnd competitor's prices. A manager could react to these by focusing on new products, new markets, or the marketing mix for the current product market. We concentrate on the third. We focus on a set of potential reactions that could include a change in price. Data from managers in both the United States and Europe are used to study pricing reactions to hypothetical scenarios of environmental changes. We estimate relationships between the managerial response and changes in the environment for different types of businesses in different countries.     

Understanding on-the-go consumption: A retail mix perspective

On-the-go (OTG) consumption is a growing phenomenon in the food and beverage industry. Drawing on the theory of consumption values, this study is conducted to acquire a better understanding of the influence that retail-mix elements have on OTG consumption outcomes. Specifically, this study examines the role of value for money, customer service, general assortments and healthy assortments in driving intention and satisfaction related to OTG consumption. The study also assesses the conditional value generated by the consumer's health orientation, impulsiveness and perceived time pressure. Based on a sample of 433 OTG consumers, and applying multi-group structural equation modelling (SEM) and fuzzy-set qualitative comparative analysis (fsQCA), value for money was identified as the key driver of OTG consumption outcomes. Impulsiveness and time pressure are shown to increase the effects of value for money perceptions on OTG consumption intention, while health orientation enhances the relationship between customer service and satisfaction. This study contributes to the literature on OTG consumption, explains the managerial implications for retailers, and offers recommendations to target OTG consumers better.     

Values and Skills of Female Entrepreneurs in Vietnam: an Exploratory Study

There have been many changes occurring in Asian business and management over the past two decades. One such change has been the role and position of women, both in the workforce and in management. Asian economies have experienced rapid growth in recent years, which may have had some effect on women's career opportunities in management. This contribution adopts a holistic approach to examine whether women in these Asian countries have experienced a greater acceptance of their participation in management or whether significant barriers remain.     

Determinants of retail patronage: A meta-analytical perspective

The retail patronage idea includes such key concepts as store choice and frequency of visit. In this study, the authors synthesize previous empirical studies through a formal, critical review of retailing literature. The meta-analysis suggests that various predictors (e.g., service, product selection, quality) are strongly related to shoppers’ retail choice, whereas others (e.g., store attitude, store image) are important antecedents of shopping frequency. However, the relationships between the predictors and retail patronage vary according to the study characteristics (e.g., experimental vs. other designs). The authors offer implications for retailing research and practice.     

Delineating retail conurbations: A rules-based algorithmic approach

Retail conurbations may be defined as market areas with high intra-market movement. A limited range of approaches has been used to delineate such retail conurbations. This paper evaluates a simplified version of an existing zone design method used to define labour market areas, the Travel-To-Work-Area algorithm (TTWA), for application in a retail context. Geocoded loyalty card spend data recorded by Boots UK Limited, a large health and beauty retailer, were used to develop retail conurbations (newly termed Travel-To-Store-Areas (TTSAs)) for several UK regions using this algorithm. The output TTSA boundaries displayed significantly greater intra-zone flows compared to existing retail conurbation delineation approaches. There is thus scope for researchers and analysts to broaden the zone design approaches used to develop retail conurbations.