Is expatriation good for my career? The impact of expatriate assignments on perceived and actual career outcomes

This study examines the impact of expatriate assignments on career growth and the external marketability of US employees of a large professional services firm. We use survey and archival data to compare expatriates currently overseas, repatriates, and domestic US employees on compensation, recent promotions, and external recruiting contacts. We then examine how actual pay, promotions, and external recruiting influences anticipated salary growth within the firm and external employment opportunities. We find that despite little or no impact on their current careers, employees with overseas work experience perceived greater internal and external opportunities than domestic US employees. Implications for managers and researchers are discussed.     

What makes them move abroad? Reviewing and exploring differences between self-initiated and assigned expatriation

Only in recent years have self-initiated expatriates (SIEs) been distinguished from assigned expatriates (AEs). But there is still a lack of empirically based comparative results. Statistical analysis, performed on data from 193 expatriates (N_AE = 67; N_SIE = 126), indicates that self-initiated foreign work experience is significantly more likely to be chosen by women and those having lower job levels. Furthermore, boundaryless and protean career orientation only partially predicted which career path is chosen. SIEs have higher organizational mobility preferences, but do not differ from AEs in their boundaryless mindset and protean career attitude. Implications of these findings for research in expatriation are discussed.     

Compelled to go abroad? Motives and outcomes of international assignments

This article examines the motives of expatriates and repatriates to accept international assignments and how these motives relate to individuals' perceptions of expatriation outcomes. Issues of adjustment, satisfaction, withdrawal intentions, willingness to relocate again in the future, and recommendation of an assignment to others were considered as outcomes. The data were collected through semi-structured interviews of 30 Portuguese expatriates and repatriates. The results indicate that a considerable number of participants relocated because they felt compelled to do so by their employing companies. Moreover, the extent to which organizations persuade these originally unwilling expatriates seems to have negative implications in terms of their perceptions of the adjustment process, general satisfaction with the assignment, and withdrawal intentions. Compelling behaviour also has career implications and impacts individual receptiveness to relocate in the future. Suggestions for further research and implications for organizations and prospective expatriates are also presented.     

Who is a self-initiated expatriate? Towards conceptual clarity of a common notion

The purpose of this article is to enhance the conceptual coherence of the notion of a self-initiated expatriate (SIE). We propose a definition based on a set of conceptual criteria which differentiates SIEs from other types of international movers. This article defines who an SIE is according to four criteria which must all be fulfilled at the same time: (a) self-initiated international relocation, (b) regular employment (intentions), (c) intentions of a temporary stay, and (d) skilled/professional qualifications. The article discusses each of these criteria in turn and their implications on what it means to be an SIE. A research agenda related to the four criteria proposes various avenues which scholars could take to expand this area of research. The literature on SIEs is rapidly emerging, but the lack of conceptual clarity in defining this type of expatriate is as acute as incomprehensible, given the importance of this group of international movers.     

A test of the relationship between person–environment fit and cross-cultural adjustment among self-initiated expatriates

Understanding an expatriate's cross-cultural adjustment to the various aspects of their host environment and organization has been a focal point of research for several decades. Person–environment (PE) fit refers to the degree of fit an individual has with various dimensions of their host environment, and past research suggests that successful PE fit positively influences adjustment. However, the strength of these relationships remains under-researched. Drawing upon data gathered from 369 self-initiated expatriate doctors working in Ireland, we examine the strength of the relationship between PE fit and cross-cultural adjustment. Our results suggest that dimensions of PE fit influence cross-cultural adjustment to varying degrees. Thus, person–job needs-supplies fit was the only fit dimension to influence interaction adjustment, while person–job demands abilities influenced both work adjustment and, to a lesser extent, interaction adjustment. Person–organization fit influenced work adjustment, while person–supervisor fit had no relationship with adjustment. These findings have implications for organizations when recruiting and supporting self-initiated expatriates.     

Understanding re-expatriation intentions among overseas returnees – an emerging economy perspective

This study investigates the reasons why returnees in an emerging economy, Vietnam, who have studied and/or worked abroad, and who have returned to their home country, intend to re-expatriate on their own initiative. We combine pull–push theory with the theory of planned behaviour (TPB) to explain the re-expatriation intentions of returnees. Using path analysis on a sample of 290 Vietnamese returnees, we find three pull–push factors associated with home and host countries that have a significant impact on returnees’ intention to re-expatriate: (1) dissatisfaction with career and life in their home country, (2) reverse culture shock and (3) expected career, family and quality-of-life outcomes from re-expatriation. For the TPB, we find that attitudes toward re-expatriation and subjective norms affect returnees’ intention to re-expatriate. Further, these factors either fully or partially mediate the role of pull–push factors on intention to re-expatriate. The study adds to the limited number of empirical studies on self-initiated re-expatriation and brain circulation of returnees in emerging economies.     

Work-life balance – a neglected issue among Austrian female expatriates

Previous research has highlighted the importance of subjective well-being and the expatriate's supportive personal environment for the success of an international assignment. As studies focusing on work-life balance of expatriates are still very rare, and research dealing with this topic from a gender perspective seems to be almost non-existent, this study emphasizes the work-life balance situation of female expatriates on foreign assignments. After having interviewed 10 female expatriates, results clearly support the existing state of the art in this field. Thereby work intrusion into family life, for example, has proven to have stronger impact on an expatriate's life than vice versa. Furthermore, several issues so far neglected in the literature have been revealed that influence women's work-life balance abroad. The importance of leisure time, social networks, sports and personal confidence can be determined. Additionally, as work-life balance has an individual meaning, support measures offered by companies are thus also required to be tailored individually. This paper reports on narrative interviews with female expatriates and provides more insight into the subject of work-life balance of international women managers. It begins by reviewing the literature on work-life balance and expatriation before analysing the specific matters of work-life balance of female expatriates and asking how women deal with the additional stress and pressure arising on an international assignment. Then, the underlying Grounded Theory Method is discussed before presenting the findings and discussing their implications in terms of future research.     

The ‘expat factor’: the influence of working time on women's decisions to undertake international assignments in the oil and gas industry

This article examines the effect of working time on women's willingness to go on expatriate assignments in the oil and gas exploration and production sector. The research draws upon an analysis of two case study firms' international assignment and working time policies, semi-structured interviews with 14 human resource staff responsible for policy design and implementation, and a survey of the views of 71 women expatriates, supported by in-depth interviews with 26 of the survey respondents. The research identifies an ‘expat factor’: assignees state that long hours are inherent in expatriation and necessary to further their careers. However, in practice, working time is not excessive and flexible working practices are utilised. Hours of work have little effect on women's decisions to undertake long-term assignments but alternatives such as short-term and commuter assignments are unpopular as their working patterns are disruptive to family life. This article contributes to theory development by linking two discrete frameworks that explain women's career choices when they strive to balance their career goals with their families and by identifying a career compromise threshold when expatriation is rejected in favour of family considerations. A model is proposed to link working time/patterns to women's international assignment participation.