Social capital and cultural adjustment of international assignees in NGOs: do support networks really matter?

International assignees face cultural adjustment challenges in their host countries in work and nonwork situations. At the same time, social capital theory suggests that individuals can access and mobilize resources from their social networks. We explore the use of social networks by international assignees from a non-governmental organization in their cross-cultural adjustment to the host country. Specifically, we are interested in the individuals who directly provided support to the expatriate, a network that we term the ‘current assignment support network’. We focus on the size, type and frequency of contact of the international assignee's support network, and investigate to what extent these variables can predict overall cultural adjustment to the host country, or separate dimensions of cultural adjustment such as interaction adjustment, general adjustment and work adjustment. Our findings indicate that certain characteristics of the international assignee's current assignment support network do impact their cultural adjustment to the host country, but that the effects are moderated by whether the assignee has prior international experience.     

The impact of expatriate supporting practices and cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adjustment and performance of expatriates in Singapore

We test the relationships between corporate expatriate supporting practices, cross-cultural adjustment, and expatriate performance. Specifically, we propose that the facets of cultural intelligence moderate the expatriate supporting practices–expatriate adjustment relationship. Analyzing 169 expatriates residing in Singapore, we found that expatriate supporting practices were positively related to adjustment as well as performance. Further, we demonstrated that metacognitive and cognitive cultural intelligence negatively moderated the links between expatriate supporting practices and adjustment, while motivational cultural intelligence had a positive moderating effect. These findings have implications for organizations providing support for expatriates and the expatriate selection and training processes.     

Expatriate adjustment from the inside out: an autoethnographic account

This paper identifies some of the dynamics of expatriate adjustment using an autoethnographic account of situations experienced by the first author during her first year of work at a financial services company in Hong Kong. Success in this cross-cultural assignment is dependent on the expatriate's ability to adjust to and master the new culture. Our theoretical analysis of the autoethnographic account suggests that culture shock may be a discontinuous process. Further, the analysis suggests that cultural acceptance can play a critical role in expatriate adjustment.     

Does it really work? Re-assessing the impact of pre-departure cross-cultural training on expatriate adjustment

Cultural adjustment is considered to be a prerequisite for expatriate success abroad. One way to enhance adjustment is to provide employees with knowledge and awareness of appropriate norms and behaviours of the host country through cross-cultural training (CCT). This article analyses the impact of pre-departure CCT on expatriate adjustment and focuses on variations in participation, length and the comprehensiveness of training. Unlike previous research, the study focuses on the effectiveness of pre-departure CCT for non-US employees expatriated to a broad range of host country settings. Employing data from 339 expatriates from 20 German Multinational Corporations (MNCs) the study finds CCT has little if any effect on general, interactional or work-setting expatriate adjustment. However, a significant impact of foreign language competence was found for all three dimensions of expatriate adjustment. We used interviews with 20 expatriates to supplement our discussion and provide further implications for practice.     

You're from where? The influence of distance factors on New Zealand expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment

This study empirically tests the influence of various distance factors on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. Expatriate perceptions of home and host country differences, objective measures of distance and the accuracy of expatriate evaluations of host country distance were compared as predictors of expatriate adjustment difficulty in the host country. The results revealed that perceived distance, objective cultural distance and the expatriate's perceptual inaccuracy had a significant effect on expatriate adjustment difficulty for one's first assignment. However, on subsequent assignments all measures of distance were significant. Adjustment became more difficult as perceptual accuracy improved. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

A model for the influence of social interaction and social support on female expatriates' cross-cultural adjustment

This paper offers a model to describe the way in which female expatriates develop relationships and utilize those relationships to become cross-culturally adjusted. This model includes three predictive components affecting cross-cultural adjustment. The first includes the factors affecting whether a woman is able to form relationships on the expatriate assignment. These antecedents can include the female expatriate's personality, the cultural norms towards women, her language skills and the availability of possible opportunities for interaction. The second component includes the various sources of social interaction and social support (e.g. family members, and host national colleagues). The third component describes the nature of a female expatriate's social interaction and social support (e.g. emotional, informational and instrumental). Practical considerations for multinational organizations sending female expatriates are offered.     

Expatriate pay satisfaction: the role of organizational inequities,assignment stressors and perceived assignment value

Using equity, stress and buffer theories, we investigate the role played by organizational inequities (organizational justice and provision of benefits) and assignment stressors (work adjustment and role novelty) in predicting expatriate pay satisfaction. We also assess the role of perceived assignment value as an important buffer that moderates the above relationships. With a sample of 78 expatriates from nine nationalities working in Hong Kong, we find that organizational justice and work adjustment are both positively related to expatriate pay satisfaction. We also find that perceived assignment value strengthens the provision of benefits–pay satisfaction and work adjustment–pay satisfaction relationships. Limitations and managerial implications are discussed.     

Mapping the criterion space for expatriate success: task- and relationship-based performance,effort and adaptation

The paper presents an explicit consideration of the criterion space for expatriate success. Expatriate performance is conceptualized in terms of task completion, relationship building and overall performance. These three dimensions are determined by various features of effort regulation: the amount and pattern of personal resources the expatriate spends on behaviours that constitute his or her position. Drawing upon work motivation and withdrawal literatures, we assess effort in terms of withdrawal cognitions, passive task neglect, active task avoidance, time to proficiency and leader-team exchanges. Effort regulation, in turn, is proposed to be a function of three forms of adjustment (cultural, interaction and work) – which have been the default criterion in past expatriate research. Our model is tested using multi-source data from expatriates, their spouses and their work colleagues. Support for the proposed mapping of successive linkages between adjustment, effort (including the often-studied assignment withdrawal) and performance dimensions provides a more comprehensive perspective of the expatriate criterion space.     

Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates in Japan

This study examines determinants of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment related to non-work- (interaction and general living adjustment) and work- (work adjustment and job satisfaction) aspects in Japan. It was hypothesized that cultural distance and expatriate gender, language proficiency, type (organizational or self-initiated expatriates), and stable personality traits (social initiative, emotional stability, cultural empathy, flexibility, and open-mindedness) have an influence on both non-work- and work-related adjustment. Hierarchical regression analyses, performed on data from 110 expatriates, indicate that expatriate language proficiency, type, and the personality traits of emotional stability and cultural empathy have a positive influence on both types of adjustment. Implications of these findings for practice are discussed.     

文化因素对企业外派员工培训外包管理的影响研究

丝绸之路是商业互通的桥梁,而"一带一路"则是丝绸之路的创新性拓展。跨国企业贸易活动中外派员工扮演着重要的角色,然而外派员工的业绩极易受到目标国文化的影响,跨文化培训势在必行。论文基于霍夫斯泰德文化维度理论,从文化的各个维度探讨了文化因素与企业外派员工培训外包管理决策的相互关系。     

Modes of cross-cultural leadership adjustment: adapting leadership to meet local conditions and/or changing followers to match personal requirements?

In this article, we present a study that explores modes of cross-cultural leadership adjustment (CLA) and investigates the forces influencing them. Nigel Nicholson’s theory of work role transitions was used as the theoretical foundation to explore work role requirements (consisting of role discretion and novelty of job demands) as potential predictors of modes of CLA. Our data were collected from expatriate senior managers working in Thailand. The results show that the majority of our expatriate executives make adjustments to their leadership approach and try to change Thai employees – thus demonstrating the adoption of an exploration mode of adjustment – and that role requirements, Thai employee characteristics, the local hierarchy system and the expatriate leaders’ perceptions all influence the latter’s modes of adjustment. Based on our findings, we develop a theoretical framework and a number of research propositions. Finally, we discuss the implications of our findings.     

Antecedents and consequences of the perceived adjustment of Japanese expatriates in the USA

The present study was designed to better understand the antecedents and consequences of expatriate adjustment in an international assignment. The researchers surveyed Japanese expatriates assigned to the United States. Structural equation modeling was utilized to test our hypotheses and model. The results indicated that previous knowledge of the host country, language proficiency, willingness to communicate and perception of the novelty of the host culture were differentially related to expatriates' adjustment to the host country. General and work adjustments were negatively related to expatriates' intent to return early. In addition, interrelationships among the adjustment dimensions were examined and the results indicated that general adjustment leads to work adjustment, which, in turn, influences interactional adjustment. Implications for future research are presented.     

Working in the Middle East: Western female expatriates' experiences in the United Arab Emirates

This study is about the experiences of Western female expatriates working in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), a Muslim Arab country in the Middle East. We reveal these expatriates' own interpretations of their adjustment, cross-cultural training (CCT) and social ties and support experiences. On the basis of a survey of 86 female expatriates from Australia, New Zealand, the UK and the USA and subsequent interviews with 26 of them, we find that Western women successfully adjust to life and work in the UAE despite significant cultural differences between their home countries and the UAE. Surprisingly, Western female expatriates do not find lengthy rigorous CCT critical to their assignments in this country. They see such training as an unjustified cost due to the fact that they rarely interact with host nationals and are much more frequently exposed to other Westerners and representatives of other cultures while undertaking their assignments. The large Western expatriate community is highly appreciated as the primary source of social ties and support for our respondents, whereas interacting with host country nationals is rather an exception and does not provide essential ties and support. Our findings have implications for multinational companies (MNCs) operating via expatriation in the UAE and for Western female expatriates who consider this country as their assignment destination.     

Work experiences,work adjustment and psychological well-being of expatriate employees in Hong Kong

This study replicated and extended research on expatriate work adjustment by examining the antecedents of work adjustment and its outcomes in terms of psychological well-being. Data were obtained from a nationally heterogeneous sample (N = 184) of expatriate employees in Hong Kong using a structured questionnaire. Results of regression analysis revealed role conflict to be significantly negatively related to work adjustment, while role discretion, co-worker support and work-method ambiguity (clarity) were significantly positively related to work adjustment. Of the three hypothesized outcomes, work adjustment was significantly positively related only to job satisfaction but not to quality of life and marital adjustment. Though not the focus of this study, interaction adjustment was found to be significantly positively related to quality of life. Limitations of the study and implications of the findings are discussed.     

Gender and managerial coaching across cultures: female managers are coaching more

Despite the increasing popularity of managerial coaching in organizations worldwide, little is known with regard to how gender and culture may affect managerial behavior. The present study is the first empirical study on managerial coaching on a global scale. Based on social role theory, role congruity theory, and cross-cultural theory, we first expect female leaders to engage in more coaching behavior than male leaders. Second, we expect that male leadership, particularly coaching behavior, is more influenced by societal culture than female leadership. Survey data were obtained from more than 600,000 employees, assessing coaching behavior of more than 130,000 practicing managers from 51 countries/areas. Results support both expectations. Taken together, this study has advanced our empirical and theoretical understanding of managerial coaching on a global scale.     

Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: individual and organizational level predictors

A conceptual model is proposed that identifies critical antecedents of expatriate adjustment. Adjustment is conceptualized as the degree of fit between the expatriate manager and the environment, both work and socio-cultural. Adjustment is marked by both reduced conflict and increased effectiveness. As a multidimensional phenomenon, expatriate adjustment can be identified in psychological, socio-cultural and work domains. The model predicts that psychological and socio-cultural adjustment are the most immediate predictors of work adjustment. In this paper, it is asserted that the success of the expatriation process depends not only on the expatriate manager's competencies and skills, but also on organizational (both parent-company and local-unit) support and assistance prior to and during the assignment. Various international human resource management models are utilized to examine the organizational level antecedents of expatriate adjustment. Managerial resourcefulness, acculturation attitudes, personality dimensions and coping strategies are discussed in relation to individual predictors, whereas MNCs' international structure, value orientation, organizational life-cycle, diversity training, strategic planning and socialization are proposed as organizational predictors of expatriate adjustment.     

Work goals among male and female business students in Canada and China: the effects of culture and gender

The work goals of 374 male and female business students in Canada and China were compared along six dimensions: simplicity/routine, extrinsic rewards, organizational influence, intrinsic rewards, balanced life and moral congruence. Compared with Canadians, the Chinese exhibited a weaker concern for balanced life, an equal attention to extrinsic rewards and organizational influence, and a stronger interest in intrinsic rewards, simplicity/routine and moral congruence. The young educated women in the two countries appear to face similar challenges of balancing their career and family interests. Canadian and Chinese women, while giving higher priority to the goals of balanced life and simplicity/routine than their male counterparts, were as concerned about their career success as the latter, in terms of both materialistic and intrinsic rewards. The pattern of sex differences in work goals was, however, not entirely identical between the two countries. While no sex difference existed with respect to organizational influence in Canada and moral congruence in China, Chinese women assigned less importance to organizational influence than their male counterparts and Canadian women focused more on moral congruence than their male counterparts. For Western multinational firms in China, the results of this study suggest that, even though the Chinese male and female professionals give very high priority to career success, the special needs of the Chinese women should not be overlooked. To compete effectively for the talents of professional women in China, these firms need to consider providing their Chinese employees some of the 'family-friendly' organizational initiatives, such as flextime and part-time work, which are already made available for many of their North American employees.     

A test of the relationship between person–environment fit and cross-cultural adjustment among self-initiated expatriates

Understanding an expatriate's cross-cultural adjustment to the various aspects of their host environment and organization has been a focal point of research for several decades. Person–environment (PE) fit refers to the degree of fit an individual has with various dimensions of their host environment, and past research suggests that successful PE fit positively influences adjustment. However, the strength of these relationships remains under-researched. Drawing upon data gathered from 369 self-initiated expatriate doctors working in Ireland, we examine the strength of the relationship between PE fit and cross-cultural adjustment. Our results suggest that dimensions of PE fit influence cross-cultural adjustment to varying degrees. Thus, person–job needs-supplies fit was the only fit dimension to influence interaction adjustment, while person–job demands abilities influenced both work adjustment and, to a lesser extent, interaction adjustment. Person–organization fit influenced work adjustment, while person–supervisor fit had no relationship with adjustment. These findings have implications for organizations when recruiting and supporting self-initiated expatriates.     

Personal attributes of expatriate managers,subordinate ethnocentrism,and expatriate success: a host-country perspective

This study had two objectives. First, to establish the relative importance of expatriate managers' job knowledge, relational leadership skills, and cultural openness and adaptability for expatriate success from the perspective of host-country national subordinates, and to test whether these personal attributes are related to expatriate success criteria (expatriate work adjustment, subordinate commitment, subordinate job satisfaction, and unit performance). Second, to test whether host-country national subordinate ethnocentrism is related to expatriate work adjustment. Respondents were 129 host-country national subordinates of expatriate managers. Results showed that subordinates perceived all personal attributes as important and that all personal attributes were positively related to most of the success criteria. However, relational leadership skills was the most important personal attribute, and it was the crucial success factor for expatriate managers' unit performance. Subordinate ethnocentrism was negatively related to expatriate work adjustment. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

A taxonomy of expatriate leaders' cross-cultural uncertainty: insights into the leader–employee dyad

The authors develop a theory-based taxonomy of expatriate leaders' cross-cultural uncertainty toward local employees by drawing on uncertainty reduction theory. Two studies with expatriate leaders provide the empirical basis. The first, qualitative study uses in-depth interviews with 23 expatriate leaders to identify major facets and constructs for describing expatriate leaders in different uncertainty constellations. A quantitative survey-based study with dyadic data about 149 expatriate leaders and their local employees identifies five different expatriate types with regard to their cross-cultural uncertainty. The results reveal performance differences across the five expatriate types.