International Retail Restructuring and Divestment: The Experience of Tesco

A key purpose of this study is to explore the lessons learned from international retail divestment and market withdrawal experiences. Drawing on 33 in-depth interviews with leading investment banks and key retail executives at Tesco, the study investigates the company's international restructuring and divestment activities in Ireland and France during the mid -1980s and 1990s. It has been demonstrated that, despite the progressive merger and acquisition wave sweeping through the corporate retail landscape recently, international retail divestment is quite widespread. The main conclusion from this study is that Tesco originally did not envisage divestment or de-internationalisation as part of the original internationalisation strategy process in either the acquisition of Three Guys in Ireland or Catteau in France. There was no appreciation from Tesco during their early period of expansion of the fact that exit pressures might arise during the course of market entry. In this regard, the case study provides insights into the relationship between investment and divestment within the context of international retail restructuring. The case evidence also demonstrates the positive impact of the Three Guys and Catteau divestments which helped management to refocus and rejuvenate the company's internationalisation process.     

The influence of gender and culture on Generation Y consumer decision making styles

Through the use of case studies of Cardiff (UK) and Charlotte (USA) this paper provides a comparative study of the retail structure of British and American cities. Three of the most striking contrasts can be seen in the intra-urban location of retail activity, the role of planned and unplanned shopping centres, and in the amount of retail space provision. Retailing in USA cities tends to be more decentralized, with a greater role for planned shopping centres and more retail space than in British cities. Reasons for this are explored.     

Exploring the system of digitised retail design—flattening the ontology

The objective of this article is to combine the two dominant perspectives of retail design— design and business—through systems thinking and flat ontology, in order to understand the ‘store’ as designed by retail designers in the new digital area. Using an abductive case study of the Danish retail design world, this article connects actors into a system, redefines 'the store’ as an interface between retailer and customer, and attaches the metaphors ‘observed universe’ and ‘extended self’ of owner managers to collectively designed spaces. The implication of the study is a retail design (and business) canvas.The article's practical contribution is clarifying the profession of retail design under the condition of digitised retail, and to present a first step towards a system-based theory for retail design.Managerial contributionThe article redefines the store as an interface affording customers' and retailers’ exchange of product and experiential interaction with the aim of providing adequate revenue.     

东道国网络结构三维嵌入与零售专业技能跨国转移

从网络视角运用嵌入关系来分析零售专业技能跨国转移具有重要意义.通过对沃尔玛、家乐福和乐购在华子公司的案例分析,发现零售企业海外子公司东道国网络的关系嵌入、网络中心度、网络密度对零售专业技能跨国转移的效果有正向影响,群体中心度对零售专业技能跨国转移的效果有负向影响.     

Understanding the ‘retail revolution’ in urban China: a survey of retail formats in Beijing

Retailing in Chinese cities has experienced rapid changes in the reform era. One of the most visible changes in the urban retail landscape has been the emergence and growth of new retail formats. Using Beijing as a case study, this paper examines the evolution of retail formats in Chinese cities. The paper investigates the impacts of the changing external environment, especially the shift in government policies, on the structure of retail formats. It argues that to understand the rapid restructuring of retail formats in Chinese cities one needs to take into account the factors such as political, economic and social-cultural environment, and perhaps more importantly, regulatory changes. The consequences and implications of observed retail changes are discussed.     

Corporate communication, ethics, and operational identity: a case study of Benetton

This article investigates conceptual and strategic relationships between corporate identity, organizational identity and ethics, utilizing the Benetton Corporation as an illustrative case study. Although much attention has been given to visual aspects of Benetton's renowned ethical brand building efforts, few studies have looked at how Benetton's employees, retail environments and trade events express ethical aspects of their well-known corporate identity. A multi-method case study, including interviews at retail outlets and trade events, sheds light on several important yet under-studied components of corporate identity, including stakeholders such as retail managers and contract employees. Analysis of Benetton's operations revealed disconnection and inconsistency, as well as a failure to communicate ethical values and socially responsible attributes throughout organizational identity. Operational identity emerged as a useful complement to models of corporate identity. We demonstrate the way in which organizations may fail to capitalize on positive aspects of their organizational identity by neglecting their operational identity.     

Designing retail - Unravelling coping strategies through emphatic interviewing owner managers.

This research aims at demonstrating how retail designers through empathic interviewing and listening to the story that retailers tell about their retail concept, can program the retail design task, identify inconsistencies not thought of using the “retail design thematic map” developed and give better advice to retailers.Using independent retail as case the article sheds light on the empathic interview as method, strengthens retail design as a relevant discipline for retail strategy, and clarifies the role of emotion in the client – retailer relation regarding strategizing.     

Exploring brand identity and entrepreneurship as drivers of small specialist retailer internationalisation: a German case study

While the comparatively sparse literature on small specialist retailing typically supports a proactive interpretation of the drivers of retail internationalisation, a more differentiated picture exists with regard to understanding the role of the brand construct in this process. The wider marketing literature recognises that brand identity, as well as brand image, can inform the process of internationalisation; yet, research focusing on small specialist retail internationalisation remains underdeveloped in this regard. Neither the notion of a multi-faceted brand concept nor its function as a strategic device in the internationalisation process has been analysed with sufficient depth. Furthermore, a better understanding of how and to what extent brand identity is interdependent upon the characteristics and activities of the entrepreneur is yet to emerge. This paper explores the construct of brand identity and its role within small specialist retail internationalisation, and the related influence of the entrepreneur on the internationalisation process. A case study approach is adopted, examining one German small specialist retailer. Data collection involved semi-structured interviews with owner-managers and other senior management, an assessment of company documentation as well as participant observation, providing in-depth insights into distinctive internationalisation patterns. The study finds that a simple ‘either-or’ approach, in terms of characterising the retailer’s motivation to internationalisation as being either reactive or proactive, is inadequate in understanding this particular case. Whilst initial motivation was characterised as being reactive, the motivations underpinning further planned internationalisation are determined to be more proactive. More particularly, analysis reveals how brand identity is considered to play an important role in the internationalisation of the case study retailer, and highlights the numerous ways in which the characteristics and activities of the entrepreneurial owner-managers impact the firm’s internationalisation. This research contributes to retail and management research concerning SME internationalisation as well as to the retail branding literature.     

Applying the scenarios method to capture uncertainties of retail development in emerging markets

Retail development in emerging markets has been the result of key driving forces operating in a variety of ways leading to unpredictable and complex patterns of retail change. Existing theories of retail change remain inadequate for capturing the complexities inherent in emerging markets. In order to capture the impact of the complex interplay of driving forces on retail change in emerging markets, the authors adopted the scenario method which accepts structural uncertainty and allows for multiple interpretations of multiple futures for the phenomenon under study. An example case study is presented, where four possible visions for retail development in emerging markets in Asia are identified. The four scenarios are firstly, a scenario where Traditional Retailers dominate through mom and pop stores, a second one where Regional Retailers dominate, a third one where Discounted Retailers dominate and a fourth where Mixed Retailers gain predominance. The scenarios highlight that the politics of retailing give rise to new conventions of competition in emerging markets, which sustain the coexistence of a variety of retail formats in these markets. The scenarios approach demonstrates that the nature of consumer behaviour rooted in traditions and customs alongside rising aspirations sustains a dual model of retailing in emerging markets. The paper concludes with reflections for retail development theory and implications for practitioners and policy-makers.     

The state,small shops and hypermarkets: A public policy for retail,France, 1945–1973

Abstract

This article examines contemporary French retail history, studying both transformations in retail structures and evolutions in government retail policies from 1945 to 1973. It notably questions the existence of a defined public policy for the retail sector. Based on extensive archival research, it is designed to offer an overview of the topic in order to familiarise international scholars with French retail history, while stimulating discussion and providing case material to enable comparisons with other national cases.     

A Comparison between Dutch and German Retail Price Setting

This article examines the diferences between Dutch and German retail price setting. The study is based on an econometric approach in the sense that the estimates of the coeficients of a one-equation model explaining retail profit margins are compared. Extensive datasets are used for both the Dutch and German case, allowing a general comparison between the two countries to be made. An ex post interpretation of the differences in coeficients found is given.     

Retail media networks

This study explores large retailers' exchanges of customer data and personalization through targeted advertising on retail media networks. The Retail Media Networks Model is introduced, and a case illustration is provided with examples from the model illustrating personalization/privacy exchanges from the retailers' perspective. Secondary data and primary data featuring interviews with retail media network managers and technology ad platform providers from large retailers in the US and EU. The size of retail media networks is discussed along with other current managerial implications relevant to personalization and data monetization, including, walled gardens, data privacy controls, and public policy issues.     

Power,policy networks and planning: the involvement of major grocery retailers in the formulation of Planning Policy Guidance Note 6 since 1988

This paper explores a neglected issue in the study of retail strategy and store location by considering the nature of policy networks operating at the interface between retailers and central government. It argues that informal networks, coupled with the economic power of retailers and the legitimization of their activities with reference to the 'consumer interest', have served to provide retailers with an influential avenue through which they can exert power over the nature of the regulatory environment within which they operate. The paper considers the limited extant 'evidence' of the operation of such networks before moving on to outline the results of a case study. The case study reflects on new store development in the UK grocery sector since 1988 as a backdrop to an analysis of the form of policy networks operating at the interface between government departments and retail organizations. It also explores the role of other stakeholders in this process. The existence of a number of such networks is described and their role explored with reference to the involvement of retailers in the formulation and evolution of Planning Policy Guidance Note 6 on retail development.     

Barriers to ‘industrialisation’ for interwar British retailing? The case of Marks & Spencer Ltd

Research on international differences in retail productivity has highlighted formidable environmental barriers to the ‘industrialisation’ of mass retailing as a driver of declining British interwar productivity growth in this sector (and in services more generally). We examine evidence for such barriers, using a case study of a firm that built its interwar expansion strategy on ‘American’ retail methods – Marks & Spencer (M&S). We find that, rather than facing barriers to the adoption of American mass retail practices, M&S reaped major productivity gains from this process. This adds further evidence to an emerging literature rejecting the barriers to industrialisation thesis for retailing.     

Retailing and consumption: evidence from war time Britain

Insufficient attention has been given to the place of the consumer in debates surrounding the history of retail development and retail change. This paper uses empirical data from the archive of Mass-Observation to explore directly consumers' reactions to the issue of retail development and change in early 1940s Britain. Mass-Observation data is shown to provide clear evidence of consumers' differing perceptions of the retail industry, their preferences for particular retail types and their reactions to retail change. It also confirms the need to remain alert to the importance of social relations in understanding consumers' reactions to the retail change process. The paper ends by arguing the case for further historical studies of the retailing and consumption interface.     

Configurations of business strategy and marketing channels for e-commerce and traditional retail formats: A Qualitative Comparison Analysis (QCA) in sporting goods retailing

This article applies a configurational approach to study the fit between retail format, business strategy, and multi-channel setup. Its empirical material consists of five case studies, and a data set of 74 sporting goods retailers in Sweden. Our results show that a retailer can create strategic advantages when its multi-channel setup fits with its business strategy, and that retail format is important for explaining differences in growth and profit, the former being assigned to e-commerce and the latter to physical stores. Moreover, the study reveals that to some extent online channels also have positive performance implications for physical store retailers.     

The impact of customer awareness of manufacturer name disclosure on retail brand attitudes and loyalty in Korea

This paper explores the impact of exposing the name of the manufacturer on a retail brand product upon national brand loyalty, retail brand loyalty and store loyalty, It does so by exploring customer attitudes towards retail brands in South Korea, where there is a legal requirement for retail brands to portray the manufacturer׳s name. For international retailers entering markets where such disclosure is a legal requirement an understanding of the implications of this for retail brand management is essential. The findings suggest that in the Korean case revealing the name of the manufacturer who supplies the retail brand on the product packaging has a positive influence on attitudes towards retail brands, although it did not mitigate the perceived risks held by customers towards retail brand products in general.     

Collaboration on technological innovation in Danish fashion chains: A network perspective

With brand owners struggling to compete with new products, physical production processes and sourcing logistics, innovation taking place in retail networks is often overlooked. Networks in retailing are comprised by the brand owner, the varieties of single- and multi-brand stores, chains and departments stores, technology and service providers, ownership structures and local level supply chain facilities. This paper analyses theoretical and empirical views of innovation in international retail networks using lead actors in the (Danish) fashion industry as a case to highlight how this industry maintains branded stores as primary retail channels better than other industries. In order to approach the retail network as an important organisational innovation system in relation to brand owners, the aim of this paper is to characterise key elements of innovation in retail networks. The approach of this work is based on four qualitative studies of medium/larger fashion brand owners and their respective retail and service provider networks. The study shows that innovation in retailing has a continuously emergent character with open-ended strategic design requirements and strong utilisation of relations in business networks. The network comprises an innovation system that focuses on organisational learning and iterative development of the intended technologies. Implications of the current study are suggestions to brand owners, network partners and retailers on how to identify, understand, support and promote innovation via this network through systematic management of the network rather than the innovation itself.     

Intellectual Property Securitization and Growth Capital in Retail Franchising

A retail franchisor needs growth capital so that the brand continues to grow and franchisor–franchisee relations remain strong. However, access to corporate liquidity to fund such franchise growth options is not unlimited. A method of raising finance particularly suited to retail franchisors is intellectual property (IP) securitization that allows companies to account for intangible assets such as intellectual property, royalty and brands and realize their full value. In recent years, a number of large restaurant franchisors have securitized their brands to raise funds, including Dunkin Brands and Domino's Pizza (Domino's). We use property rights approach to show that IP securitization provides mechanisms that explicitly define ownership of intangible assets within the securitization structure and thus enables a company to raise funds against these assets. Using a case study example of a retail franchise IP securitization transaction, we also provide evidence that these mechanisms are not overly restrictive and can be used more widely to help fund retail franchise growth and expansion.