Predicting and Explaining Responses to Consumer Environments: An Empirical Test and Theoretical Extension of the Behavioural Perspective Model

The Behavioural Perspective Model (BPM) classifies consumer behaviours based on their utilitarion and informational consequences; it further categorises them by the scope of the settings in which they occur. An empirical study (N = 561) shows these outcomes to predict consumers’ verbal reports of their affective shows that Mehrabian and Russell's [1974] measures of pleasure, arousal and dominance are predicted by the structural features of consumer situations proposed by the BPM: the pattern of reinforcement and behaviour setting scope. Reported pleasure is higher for consumer behaviours defined in terms of relatively high utilitarian reinforcement; reported arousal is higher for consumer behaviours defined in terms of relatively high informational reinforcement; and reported dominance is higher for consumer behaviours enacted in relatively open settings. In light of its neo-Skinnerian derivation, the BPM interpretation currently emphasises a radical behaviourist philosophy of science. However, an alternative interpretation in terms of Staats's [1996] psychological behaviourism is proposed and the capacity of this alternative framework of conceptualisation and analysis to offer theoretical extension to the BPM research programme is explored.     

The Impact of the Interaction of Utilitarian and Informational Reinforcement and Behavior Setting Scope on Consumer Response

The influence of the environment on the emotional responses and behaviors of consumers has been well established in the consumer behavior literature. The Behavioral Perspective Model (BPM) assumes that utilitarian reinforcement, informational reinforcement, and consumer behavior setting scope are independent dimensions of environmental influence, which can combine in particular consumption situations to produce consumer behavior. This paper empirically examines the possibility of interactions among these dimensions by means of the pleasure, arousal, and dominance (PAD) emotional variables. The PAD variables have been shown to mediate consumer behaviors such as the desire to stay or escape from the setting, to affiliate with others, and the willingness to spend money and consume. The results, showing an interaction between pleasure and arousal in high‐pleasure environments, which then leads to increased approach behavior, seem to confirm the synergistic effects of utilitarian reinforcement and informational reinforcement on behavior. This study appears to be the first to find and investigate a three‐way interaction between pleasure, arousal, and dominance in the context of purchase and consumption. This interaction suggests that the three structural dimensions of the BPM combine to produce consumer behavior. It also highlights the important role of consumer behavior setting scope in consumer situations maintained by intermediate patterns of reinforcement. The implications of these findings for theory and marketing management are discussed.     

Consumer responses to high-technology products: Product attributes, cognition, and emotions

The present study investigates how high-technology attributes influence consumer responses. Based on Mehrabian and Russell's Stimulus-Organism-Response (S-O-R) framework (1974), this study proposes that high-technology product attributes elicit consumers' cognitive (attitude) and affective states (pleasure and arousal), contributing to their approach-avoidance behavior. High-technology product users (N = 408) participated in surveys. The results provide support for the model. Among six factors of high-technology product attributes (usefulness, ease of use, innovativeness of technology, visual appeal, prototypicality, and self-expression), the latter four have major influences on approach behavior through attitude (cognitive state) and pleasure (affective state). Supplemental analysis shows that attitude and pleasure influence approach-avoidance behavior directly, but that arousal affects approach-avoidance behavior indirectly via pleasure.     

Adapting to a retail environment: Modeling consumer-environment interactions

This paper extends current thinking on the relationship between consumers and the retail environment by assessing a theory of consumer-environment interaction that reinterprets arousal and dominance, two dimensions of the PAD model (Mehrabian, Albert, Russel, James A., An approach to environmental psychology. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1974.), as appraisal dimensions (affective expectations). According to the new account, the more specific the task, the less tolerant consumers are about discrepancies between expected and experienced arousal and dominance. The study evaluated the effects of matching or mismatching appraisals on judgments of emotional dimensions as participants shopped within a virtual store environment. Appraisals were manipulated by combining two goal conditions (goal specificity vs. goal ambiguity) with two levels of store arousal (high vs. low) to produce four separate hypothetical states: hedonic fit (ambiguous goal and high arousal), utilitarian fit (specific goal and low arousal), rational control (ambiguous goal and low arousal), and emotional submissiveness (specific goal and high arousal). When perceptual and cognitive appraisals matched (i.e., hedonic or utilitarian fit), participants judged pleasure to be significantly greater than when expectations mismatched (i.e., rational control or emotional submissiveness). Affective expectations concerning arousal and dominance thus are a strong determinant of consumer predisposition toward the environment.     

Additive omnichannel atmospheric cues: The mediating effects of cognitive and affective responses on purchase intention

In today's channel-centric retail ecosystem the right mix and orchestration of online and offline stimulus is paramount towards providing an optimal store atmosphere and shopping experience. Applying the S-O-R framework, this research explores additive omnichannel atmospheric cues stimuli, in order to discover their impact on affective (i.e., pleasure, arousal and dominance) and cognitive (i.e., store environmental quality perception) states and their consequential effect on consumer responses in the form of purchase intention. Employing a four-condition repeated measures experimental design in a physical store, utilizing mobile, IoT and social media channels (Study 1), as well as a between-subjects online lab experiment (Study 2), this research sheds light into the affective and cognition-mediated causal mechanisms that influence shopping outcomes. This work reveals that combining stimulus from all retail channels within the physical store (i.e., omnichannel atmospheric cues) increases consumers' pleasure, arousal and the quality of the environment as a whole, which in turn positively influences purchase intention. However, the impact of dominance is only prominent at the more controlled, laboratory setting, in which purchase intention increases while dominance attenuates.     

Application of an environmental psychology model to in-store buying behaviour

Although the influence of the environment on behaviour has long been acknowledged by many environmental psychologists, not many studies have been done in a retailing context, and so far no study can provide a framework to determine how environmental cues might impact on store patronage. The main objective of this study is to explore the relationship between environment and human behaviour in a retailing context by adopting the Mehrabian Russell Model (M-R Model) so as to test the predictability and applicability of the model through measurement of the information load, the emotional states induced and the approach-avoidance behaviour of shoppers in two types of CD stores in Hong Kong. The findings show that in-store environment stimuli (expressed in terms of information rate) are positively related to the level of pleasure experienced in the store. In turn, environment-induced emotional states in the store are positively related to in-store shopping behaviour. Therefore, shopping behaviour favourable to retailers can be induced through manipulation of the store's atmospheric elements. The findings show that the in-store environment is dynamic in nature and the model is not as simple as that predicted by Mehrabian and Russell in a one-way direction. In-store behaviour also has positive effects on the pleasure felt in the store and the in-store rating of environmental stimuli.     

Mobile social commerce content,consumer emotions and behaviour

Mobile social commerce (MSC) is exhibiting a growing interest from businesses and buyers due to the increasing number of mobile app users and combination of e-commerce and sharing features of MSC platforms. The limited existing research on MSC recommends that the impact of MSC platform features/content on consumer behaviour should be further explored, while the social commerce literature emphasizes the necessity to investigate impulse buying (IB) and social participation (SP). Thus, this study adopted the Stimulus-Organism-Response (SOR) theory to investigate the impact of MSC content's usefulness, interactivity, entertainment and authenticity, built from the literature, on consumer emotions (arousal and pleasure), and their relationship with IB and SP. A sample of 345 Generation Y Chinese consumers was employed, while responses were collected through a survey, being used partial least squares (PLS) structural equation modelling to test our hypotheses. Significant relationships were established between the content characteristics and emotions, entertainment exhibiting the strongest impact on arousal, and authenticity on pleasure. Arousal had a significant impact on pleasure, and arousal and pleasure significantly affected IB and SP, with arousal displaying a stronger impact. This research expands the MSC theory through the grouping of content characteristics, documentation on the impact on consumer emotions, the relationship between arousal and pleasure, and the effect on both IB and SP, extending the SOR theory applicability. Practical recommendations for Generation Y MSC marketing are proposed. The model could be extended by introducing privacy concern, content personalization, perceived risk as independent factors, and trust and planned behaviour as explained variables.     

Food shopping behavior in the Arabian Gulf region: a comparative study

In the context of an online apparel setting, this study examined the effects of amount of information and music on consumers’ affective states (i.e. pleasure and arousal) and cognitive states (i.e. perceived risk and attitude toward the site), which in turn may affect consumer shopping response (purchase intent). The moderating role of situational involvement with online shopping on the relationship between music/amount of information and affective/cognitive stateswas further examined. Results revealed significant effects for amount of information and music in relation to consumer situational involvement with online shopping. In addition, results revealed a significant effect for pleasure on perceived risk and attitude toward the site which in turn affected purchase intent. The findings of this study provide valuable managerial insights to online retailers by indicating the importance of the amount of information available on an apparel website. Additionally, this study is a springboard in determining the significant effect of music on affect and shopping responses on online shopping websites.     

Urban design and tenant variety influences on consumers' emotions and approach behavior

This paper extends Mehrabian and Russell's Stimulus-Organism-Response framework to investigate the influence of two selected environmental variables – esthetic design and tenant variety – relating to an urban shopping area on consumers' emotional states and actual shopping responses. Results of a survey conducted in an Italian town center show that the variety of tenant-mix positively affects both pleasure and arousal while esthetic design has a significant influence only on pleasure. Moreover, emotional states induced by the urban environment exert a different influence on shopping outcomes, with pleasure increasing the amount of money and time spent, and arousal positively influencing unplanned shopping and negatively affecting time and money. The paper concludes by discussing managerial and research implications for both retailing and urban marketing.     

Understanding the Influences of Atmospheric Cues on the Emotional Responses and Behaviours of Museum Visitors

ABSTRACT

The ability of an atmosphere to affect consumer emotions and behaviour is known to be particularly relevant for service organisations. This study examined the role of atmospherics in a service domain via a survey of the responses to relevant stimuli among a sample of visitors to ten UK museums. A model indicating the relationships between museum atmospherics and visitor conduct was developed and tested. Visitors' internal reactions to various atmospheric factors were explored and the consequences of these responses for an individual's approach-avoidance behaviour were evaluated.     

Online consumer behavior: Comparing Canadian and Chinese website visitors

Zajonc's (1980) theory of emotions and Mehrabian and Russell's (1974) stimulus-organism-response (SOR) framework inform the development of a model of online customer behavior. The model examines the impacts of the three types of emotions (pleasure, arousal, and dominance) on perceptions of site atmospherics (informativeness, effectiveness, and entertainment). In turn, the associations of site atmospherics on site attitudes, site involvement, service attitudes, and purchase intentions are investigated. The model is compared between Canadian and Chinese customers based on Hofstede's (1991) cultural value dimensions. The findings supported the model and revealed several non-invariant paths between the groups. Particularly, the impact of pleasure (dominance) on the other behavioral variables was higher for Canadian (Chinese) compared to Chinese (Canadian) customers. Moreover, the impacts of low (high) task relevant cues were stronger for Chinese (Canadian) customers compared to their Canadian (Chinese) counterparts. Discussion centers on the theoretical and practical implications of the findings.     

Is Background Music Effective On Retail Websites?

Web designers often advise online retailers against incorporating background music on websites. However, the effect of music in brick-and-mortar retail settings has generally been found to be favorable. The research on the effects of music has been mixed. Our study aims to examine whether congruent music on the website homepage influences online consumers. Using the responses of 290 visitors to two different commercial websites, we test the influence of background music on consumers’ arousal and pleasure perceptions. The results indicate congruent background music on a website's homepage will generate positive affective responses of arousal and pleasure within users, and will enhance users’ perceived usefulness and perceived enjoyment as well. The findings reveal the effects of respondent’ affective responses to the music differed by gender. Website music produces significant affective and cognitive responses in high web skill/low web challenge users and explains more of website enjoyment.     

Store environment,emotions and approach behaviour: applying environmental aesthetics to retailing

This exploratory study examines the influence of store environment on emotions and behaviour tendencies. The study brings insights from research on external environments to the study of store environment. We combined the idea of three distinct dimensions of emotions (pleasantness, arousal and dominance) and the role of mediating approach-avoidance behaviours with two variables taken from the field of environmental aesthetics – complexity and order. Twenty-four colour photographs of four sections of two grocery stores were rated by a sample of 43 subjects on their degree of complexity and order. A second sample of 87 subjects rated the same photographs on emotions and approach-avoidance tendencies. The relationship between complexity and order and reported pleasantness and arousal was consistent with findings regarding external environments. The three emotional dimensions mediated an inverted ‘U’ relationship between complexity and approach behaviour tendencies, as expected. Order had a positive correlation with approach behaviour tendencies. The study suggests the importance of examining general variables (such as complexity and order) in the context of retail environments and provides ideas for extensive research.     

Exploring the Feelings and Thoughts that Accompany the Experience of Consumption Desires

Desires represent a central aspect of human motivation. Recent studies in the field of consumer behavior have shown the importance of the concept of desire to better understand the aspirations of consumers living in economically developed countries for whom most basic needs are satisfied. There has been however no previous attempt at circumscribing the feelings and thoughts that accompany the experience of desire. The present research addresses this gap in the literature. The objectives of the research presented in this article are threefold: (1) to identify the affective and cognitive responses that accompany the experience of consumption desire, (2) to develop a valid scale to assess these feelings and cognitions, and (3) to explore the theoretical links that these internal responses have with other concepts of interest in the field of consumer behavior, such as impulsive and compulsive buying, materialism, innovativeness, voluntary simplicity, self‐esteem, and life satisfaction. In order to address these objectives, five studies were conducted. The results of these studies have revealed that the experience of consumption desires is generally accompanied by psychological events that are affective (i.e., pleasure, discomfort, and guilt) and cognitive (i.e., control). This research contributes to a better understanding of the phenomena that surround the experience of consumption desires as lived and managed by consumers through the development of a reliable and valid measuring instrument that can be used to explore the relationships between these phenomena and other fundamental consumer behavior concepts.     

Attitude formation from product trial: Distinct roles of cognition and affect for hedonic and functional products

Affective and cognitive responses to a product trial are examined in an experiment containing two cells representing two product types: hedonic and functional. The stimulus products were a computer game and grammar‐checking software. Forty‐two college students comprised the sample for the experiment. The specific affective responses studied are pleasure and arousal, and brand cognitions are represented as the expectancy value from brand attributes (the product of brand beliefs, belief confidence, and attribute evaluations, summed across the attributes (σ b_ic_ie_i)). The relative level and influence of affective and cognitive responses to a product trial were shown to differ significantly, depending on whether the product was hedonic or functional in nature. Specifically, for the hedonic product, felt arousal during the trial was higher than for the functional product, and emotional responses were significant antecedents of subjects' evaluations of the trial experience. Brand cognitions, however, were not significantly related to trial evaluations for the hedonic product. In contrast, for the functional product, brand cognitions and pleasure were significant antecedents of trial evaluations, but arousal was not. The findings of this study demonstrate the importance of considering both the cognitive structure created by a product trial and the consumer's emotional reactions to the trial. For hedonic products, especially, emotional responses to the trial were shown to be powerful antecedents to consumers' evaluations of a trial experience, and subsequently, brand attitude. Marketers and marketing researchers can use these results to predict which category of responses to product trial (affective or cognitive) will be most important for brand evaluation for the particular product in question. This knowledge may also enable marketers to manipulate aspects of a product trial that are most influential on the set of trial responses that this study has shown to significantly affect brand evaluation for that product type. © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Sensory overload in a shopping environment: Not every sensory modality leads to too much stimulation

Retailers use atmospheric cues to trigger emotional reactions that enhance consumer behavior. However, introducing cues into a store environment may also trigger sensory overload, due to too much stimulation. This study aims to examine the effects of adding high arousal atmospheric cues in a store environment on affective reactions, approach behavior, and evaluations by making use of different methods (i.e., two lab experiments and one field experiment), by adding various types of atmospheric cues (i.e., cues processed in higher senses versus processed in lower senses), and by differentiating the order in which they are added. Results reveal that when a third high arousal cue is added sensory overload (i.e., rise in perceived arousal and decrease in perceived pleasantness) occurs under the condition that this third cue is processed by a higher sense (i.e. visual or auditory sense). Furthermore, a decrease in approach behavior and evaluations is also observed when these conditions are met. Mediation analyses indicate that this effect on evaluations is mediated by pleasure and approach behavior. The research presented extends previous findings by investigating possible predictors (i.e., number of cues as well as type of cues) of the momentum where sensory overload may take place.     

Customer Response to Web Site Atmospherics: Task-relevant Cues,Situational Involvement and PAD

Using the pleasure, arousal, and dominance (PAD) model, this study seeks to extend existing knowledge about consumers' activities in online retail environments by focusing on the largely ignored role of perceived dominance. In online environments, perceived dominance might influence purchasing intentions both directly and indirectly through pleasure. Furthermore, consumers' perceptions of Web site atmospherics (informativeness, navigational cues, perceived organization, and entertainment) likely affect two dimensions of emotion (perceived dominance and arousal). This study also investigates the moderating effects of situational involvement on the relationships among the PAD dimensions for online consumers. The results affirm that perceived dominance has direct effects on purchasing intentions, as well as indirect impacts through pleasure. The impact of perceived dominance on pleasure also is moderated by situational involvement. Whereas high task-relevant cues exert significant effects on perceived dominance, low task-relevant cues influence arousal. Therefore, this research shows that perceived dominance relates to online customers' purchasing intentions, which represents an extension of existing knowledge about the PAD model applied online; it also provides notable managerial implications for e-marketers.     

Consumer emotions: Determinants and outcomes in a shopping mall

The present study aims to provide a deeper understanding of consumers’ emotions in a shopping mall by taking into account its two dimensions i.e. pleasure and arousal. The conceptual model is developed by considering a few unexamined determinants (namely perceived human and spatial mall crowding, promotional events, and co-visitors) and outcomes (namely repatronage and positive word-of-mouth) of arousal and pleasure. The responses (n=346) are collected by using a mall-intercept technique. Results of structural equation modeling reveal positive linkages between determinants and outcomes of pleasure and arousal. Overall, the work extends and complements the extant literature by delineating the role of various social cues and promotional cues on consumers’ pleasure and arousal in a shopping mall setting. Theoretical and managerial implications are further discussed.     

Store-evoked affect, personalities, and consumer emotional attachments to brands

This research examines how store-evoked affect, human personality, and brand personality influence consumers' emotional attachments to brands. A field study (in wine tasting rooms) demonstrates that satisfaction mediates the effects of store-evoked pleasure and arousal on brand attachments, which further affects brand loyalty and willingness to pay a price premium. Attachment is consistently stronger in positive affective environments (i.e., when pleasure, arousal, and satisfaction are high) and when the brand possesses positive dimensions of brand personality. These effects are stronger for consumers scoring high (rather than low) on extraversion, openness, agreeableness, and conscientiousness and weaker for individuals scoring high on neuroticism. A follow-up experiment (in juice bars) supports the findings of the field study and provides further insight into the three-way interaction between store-evoked affect, brand personality, and consumer personality.