Cultural novelty and adjustment: Western business expatriates in China

Although seldom formally tested, the traditional assumption in the literature on expatriate management is that the greater the cultural novelty of the host country, the more difficult it would be for the expatriate to adjust. To be able to test this proposition, a mail survey was directed towards Western business expatriates in China. Three sociocultural adjustment variables were examined: general, interaction and work adjustment. Although a negative relationship was hypothesized between cultural novelty and the three adjustment variables, results of the hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed that there was no significant association between them. Although highly tentative, the suggestion that it is as difficult for business expatriates to adjust to a very similar culture as to a very dissimilar culture is fundamental. Implications of this potentially crucial finding are discussed in detail.     

You're from where? The influence of distance factors on New Zealand expatriates’ cross-cultural adjustment

This study empirically tests the influence of various distance factors on expatriate cross-cultural adjustment. Expatriate perceptions of home and host country differences, objective measures of distance and the accuracy of expatriate evaluations of host country distance were compared as predictors of expatriate adjustment difficulty in the host country. The results revealed that perceived distance, objective cultural distance and the expatriate's perceptual inaccuracy had a significant effect on expatriate adjustment difficulty for one's first assignment. However, on subsequent assignments all measures of distance were significant. Adjustment became more difficult as perceptual accuracy improved. The implications of these findings are discussed.     

The impact of expatriate supporting practices and cultural intelligence on cross-cultural adjustment and performance of expatriates in Singapore

We test the relationships between corporate expatriate supporting practices, cross-cultural adjustment, and expatriate performance. Specifically, we propose that the facets of cultural intelligence moderate the expatriate supporting practices–expatriate adjustment relationship. Analyzing 169 expatriates residing in Singapore, we found that expatriate supporting practices were positively related to adjustment as well as performance. Further, we demonstrated that metacognitive and cognitive cultural intelligence negatively moderated the links between expatriate supporting practices and adjustment, while motivational cultural intelligence had a positive moderating effect. These findings have implications for organizations providing support for expatriates and the expatriate selection and training processes.     

中国跨国公司员工社会资本对外派适应的影响研究

理论界从社会资本视角探讨外派适应的研究仍处于探索阶段。本文在回顾相关文献的基础上,首先,构建了中国企业外派人员社会资本对外派适应影响的理论框架;其次,采用问卷法进行调查,获取255份有效问卷;再次,采用探索性因素分析、验证性因素分析和层次回归等多种统计方法对这些问卷进行,结果显示,外派人员与东道国居民的工具性关系对一般适应和互动适应有显著正向影响,在工作适应中,仅外派人员与母国其他外派人员的情感性关系发挥显著作用;最后,根据研究结论,本文提出相应的建议,希望能为跨国公司外派实践提供帮助。     

Expatriate adjustment as a multifaceted phenomenon: individual and organizational level predictors

A conceptual model is proposed that identifies critical antecedents of expatriate adjustment. Adjustment is conceptualized as the degree of fit between the expatriate manager and the environment, both work and socio-cultural. Adjustment is marked by both reduced conflict and increased effectiveness. As a multidimensional phenomenon, expatriate adjustment can be identified in psychological, socio-cultural and work domains. The model predicts that psychological and socio-cultural adjustment are the most immediate predictors of work adjustment. In this paper, it is asserted that the success of the expatriation process depends not only on the expatriate manager's competencies and skills, but also on organizational (both parent-company and local-unit) support and assistance prior to and during the assignment. Various international human resource management models are utilized to examine the organizational level antecedents of expatriate adjustment. Managerial resourcefulness, acculturation attitudes, personality dimensions and coping strategies are discussed in relation to individual predictors, whereas MNCs' international structure, value orientation, organizational life-cycle, diversity training, strategic planning and socialization are proposed as organizational predictors of expatriate adjustment.     

The impact of on-site mentoring on expatriate socialization: a structural equation modelling approach

While the literature on expatriate adjustment has focused on the importance of back-home mentors and their instrumentality for future career advancement, this research explores the importance of on-site mentors for the effective socialization of expatriates into their current overseas assignments. Using a sample of 179 expatriates located in nineteen countries, this paper presents a structural equation model illustrating the relationships among mentoring received, expatriate socialization and socialization outcomes. Amount of mentoring received positively impacts on expatriate socialization, which in turn positively influences job attitudes, intention to finish the expatriate assignment and expatriate understanding of global business issues. Using Hofstede's typology of national cultures, this research also suggests that the international context of the overseas assignment affects how much on-site mentoring expatriates receive. Specifically, expatriates are more likely to receive mentoring in small power distance, weak uncertainty avoidance and individualistic cultures.     

The Dimensions of Expatriate Adjustment

A narrow and partial theoretical base has limited current concepts of expatriate adjustment and the research based upon them. This conceptual article explores one of the less theorized aspects of expatriate adjustment: the fact that it has multiple dimensions. We conceive of adjustment as a person‐environment relationship that takes place in the three dimensions of cognitions, feelings, and behaviors. Combining these elements takes us one step closer to a comprehensive and more realistic understanding of the nature of expatriate adjustment. We include suggestions for future research that follow from our reconceptualization.     

An empirical test of a correspondence model of expatriate managers' work adjustment

We develop and empirically test a model of expatriate managers' work adjustment. In this model we relate the fit between work-related abilities and needs of expatriate managers as well as the fit between the job requirements of, and incentives associated with, an international assignment to the level of expatriate managers' work adjustment. We test this model with data gathered by means of an electronic survey among 118 German expatriate managers. The empirical findings largely support our theoretical model. The paper enhances our understanding of expatriate managers' work adjustment and its antecedents and contributes to the theoretical and empirical basis of research into expatriate management.     

Personal attributes of expatriate managers,subordinate ethnocentrism,and expatriate success: a host-country perspective

This study had two objectives. First, to establish the relative importance of expatriate managers' job knowledge, relational leadership skills, and cultural openness and adaptability for expatriate success from the perspective of host-country national subordinates, and to test whether these personal attributes are related to expatriate success criteria (expatriate work adjustment, subordinate commitment, subordinate job satisfaction, and unit performance). Second, to test whether host-country national subordinate ethnocentrism is related to expatriate work adjustment. Respondents were 129 host-country national subordinates of expatriate managers. Results showed that subordinates perceived all personal attributes as important and that all personal attributes were positively related to most of the success criteria. However, relational leadership skills was the most important personal attribute, and it was the crucial success factor for expatriate managers' unit performance. Subordinate ethnocentrism was negatively related to expatriate work adjustment. Practical implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

Multifaceted effects of host country language proficiency in expatriate cross-cultural adjustments: a qualitative study in China

While expatriates often face language barriers in host countries, relatively little research has focused on the influence of host country language proficiency on cross-cultural adjustment. We drew on social identity theory and conducted an interview-based study with 70 expatriates and their host country national (HCN) colleagues to provide a contextual account of host country language proficiency's effects on work and non-work-related adjustment in China. Our findings suggest that expatriate host country language proficiency has multifaceted effects on expatriates' HCN interaction, social support, and network-related work and non-work adjustment.     

Cross-cultural adjustment of expatriates in Japan

This study examines determinants of expatriate cross-cultural adjustment related to non-work- (interaction and general living adjustment) and work- (work adjustment and job satisfaction) aspects in Japan. It was hypothesized that cultural distance and expatriate gender, language proficiency, type (organizational or self-initiated expatriates), and stable personality traits (social initiative, emotional stability, cultural empathy, flexibility, and open-mindedness) have an influence on both non-work- and work-related adjustment. Hierarchical regression analyses, performed on data from 110 expatriates, indicate that expatriate language proficiency, type, and the personality traits of emotional stability and cultural empathy have a positive influence on both types of adjustment. Implications of these findings for practice are discussed.     

Does it really work? Re-assessing the impact of pre-departure cross-cultural training on expatriate adjustment

Cultural adjustment is considered to be a prerequisite for expatriate success abroad. One way to enhance adjustment is to provide employees with knowledge and awareness of appropriate norms and behaviours of the host country through cross-cultural training (CCT). This article analyses the impact of pre-departure CCT on expatriate adjustment and focuses on variations in participation, length and the comprehensiveness of training. Unlike previous research, the study focuses on the effectiveness of pre-departure CCT for non-US employees expatriated to a broad range of host country settings. Employing data from 339 expatriates from 20 German Multinational Corporations (MNCs) the study finds CCT has little if any effect on general, interactional or work-setting expatriate adjustment. However, a significant impact of foreign language competence was found for all three dimensions of expatriate adjustment. We used interviews with 20 expatriates to supplement our discussion and provide further implications for practice.     

The relationships of organizational justice,social exchange,psychological contract,and expatriate adjustment: an example of Taiwanese business expatriates

In the field of international human resource management, studies have seldom examined organizational justice, social exchange, and psychological contract together as important factors in influencing the expatriate adjustment process. The purpose of this research is to fill the research gap by examining these factors and their relationships with expatriate adjustment. The researcher conducted a survey of Taiwanese business expatriates during the first quarter of 2007, collecting 219 valid samples for analysis. A hierarchical regression model was used to test the research framework hypotheses, which showed that expatriates' perception of organizational justice has a positive influence both on their perceptions of social exchange and on their psychological contract fulfillment. Expatriates' perceived that social exchange has a positive influence on their perceptions of psychological contract fulfillment and foreign adjustment. Finally, research implications are discussed and future study suggestions are recommended.     

Work experiences,work adjustment and psychological well-being of expatriate employees in Hong Kong

This study replicated and extended research on expatriate work adjustment by examining the antecedents of work adjustment and its outcomes in terms of psychological well-being. Data were obtained from a nationally heterogeneous sample (N = 184) of expatriate employees in Hong Kong using a structured questionnaire. Results of regression analysis revealed role conflict to be significantly negatively related to work adjustment, while role discretion, co-worker support and work-method ambiguity (clarity) were significantly positively related to work adjustment. Of the three hypothesized outcomes, work adjustment was significantly positively related only to job satisfaction but not to quality of life and marital adjustment. Though not the focus of this study, interaction adjustment was found to be significantly positively related to quality of life. Limitations of the study and implications of the findings are discussed.     

Comparing the success of male and female expatriates from a US-based multinational company

This paper examines the differences between male and female expatriate employees along three criteria of global assignments: (1) cross-cultural adjustment, (2) desire to terminate the assignment and (3) supervisor-rated performance. Participants were ninety-eight expatriate employees from a US-based multinational organization. The countries to which these expatriates were assigned varied along the four work values proposed by Hofstede (1980). These dimensions were used first to determine which of the underlying cultural work values are associated with the number of women in managerial positions. The results suggest that all of the dimensions, except masculinity, were related to the participation of women in managerial roles. Second, these dimensions were used to examine whether these work values differentially affect male and female expatriates' success. Two work-values (power distance and masculinity) negatively affect the cross-cultural adjustment of expatriate women (compared to their male counterparts). These results suggest there are no significant differences between men and women in either supervisor-rated performance or desire to terminate the assignment, regardless of cultural values. The implications for why certain work values may negatively affect women's cross-cultural adjustment are discussed.     

Exploring the adjustment of American expatriate spouses in Germany

This paper re-conceptualizes the adjustment of expatriate spouses during overseas assignments and explores various factors influencing the level of spousal adjustment. It does so by using a combination of qualitative data, collected through interviews and group discussions with expatriate spouses, and quantitative data, gathered by means of a questionnaire survey of American expatriate spouses in Germany. The results support the existence of a hitherto neglected facet of spousal adjustment, designated 'role adjustment', and highlight some important antecedents of spousal adjustment. The implications of the results for research and the practice of international HRM are discussed.     

Coping and adjustment of Western expatriate managers in Hong Kong

This article examines coping mechanisms of Western expatriate business managers in Hong Kong to determine how these strategies are associated with the expatriates’ sociocultural and psychological adjustment. This is important since the few previous studies that have touched upon expatriate coping strategies have focused on other topics which affected both their samples, methodology and findings. Furthermore, effective coping strategies can be taught in cultural training programs better preparing expatriate candidates for their foreign assignments. As predicted, the results indicated a clear positive association between problem focused coping and both sociocultural and psychological adjustment as well as a negative relation between symptom focused coping and both dimensions of adjustment. Implications for international business firms and future research of the findings are discussed in detail.     

Managing global talent: solving the spousal adjustment problem

Spousal adjustment issues, increasingly career related, are a major reason for expatriate assignment failure. Employer-provided spousal assistance programs have been proposed to address this situation. This field study of 238 expatriate spouses found that those who experience a severe disruption or cessation of employment have significantly lower interaction adjustment to the expatriate experience than others. For spouses with a career orientation to work, females had higher cultural and interactional adjustment than males. Only 18% of the spouses received employer-provided career assistance, and there was no significant difference in adjustment between spouses who received assistance and those who did not. Interviews with 100 spouses indicated that their greatest needs are for networking information to assist with their job search and for a ‘go to’ person for practical settling-in assistance.     

The effects of cultural intelligence on expatriate performance: the moderating effects of international experience

In recent years, cultural intelligence (CQ, or the ability that an expatriate has to adapt across cultures), cultural effectiveness (the ability to interact and communicate with host nationals), and cultural adjustment are regarded as three of the most important factors for expatriate performance. However, the interrelationships between these variables have largely been ignored. Moreover, the role of previous international experiences on the above interrelationships has also not been determined. This study focuses on how CQ and expatriates' experience affects cultural adjustment, cultural effectiveness, and expatriates' performance. The results reveal that the positive effect of CQ needs to be mediated by cultural adjustment and cultural effectiveness before affecting expatriate performance. Furthermore, expatriates' prior international working and travel experiences moderate the effects of CQ on cultural adjustment and cultural effectiveness.     

A risk management model for research on expatriates in hostile work environments

Abstract

Although much has been written about the causes of expatriate adjustment, more research is needed on managing the fear and anxiety experienced when expatriates work in hostile environments. The perceived risks of terrorism, kidnapping, crime, and civil unrest can have negative effects on the performance of expatriates and the organizations that employ them. While research has begun to examine expatriates’ stress in hostile environments, there is comparatively little research on the effectiveness of management practices that can reduce such stress. We integrate the expatriate adjustment, psychological contract, and risk management literature to develop a model that can guide efforts to reduce environmental stress and its negative effect on expatriate adjustment. Specifically, we build on recent work by Bader and colleagues to develop propositions to guide future research with the aim of improving the conditions of expatriates working in hostile environments.