Introduction: the Asia-Pacific HRM model revisited

This article introduces a symposium which 'revisits' the Asia-Pacific HRM model, much discussed in recent literature. It argues that, while the IR/HRM systems of the countries in the region are prima facie heterogeneous, there is both commonality and diversity. It posits the four logical cases of 'hard convergence', 'soft convergence', 'soft divergence' and 'hard divergence'. It argues that the most probable outcomes are likely to be the middle options. 'Soft convergence' may have occurred as a result of broader responses to broad economic trends such as globalization; 'soft divergence' may still be de rigueur , as the devil is always 'in the details'. Institutional and legal changes may also take place more slowly than enterprise-level or organizational ones.     

Human resources in Sino-foreign joint ventures: selected case studies in Shanghai,compared with Beijing

This article examines HRM in joint ventures (JVs) in Shanghai compared with those in Beijing using a case-study approach. It focuses primarily on issues relating to labour contracts, rewards and benefits, social insurance, trade unions and personnel policies, and describes current developments in China in each of these areas. In order to place these JV human resource practices in context, we also draw on interviews in state-owned enterprises (SOEs) in Shanghai and Beijing. Taking as a starting point a summary of traditional SOE 'iron rice-bowl' ( tie fan wan ) practices in the management of personnel, we ask to what extent HRM in the present JV sample differs from traditional methods and to what extent 'iron rice-bowl' practices continue despite foreign ownership. The extent to which HR practices in JVs are distinct from those in contemporary SOEs is also examined. We conclude that, although, as one would expect, foreign ownership has modified traditional practice, the degree and extent to which this is true varies widely. There is strong evidence of institutional and organizational continuity in 'iron rice-bowl' practices in both JVs and SOEs. Finally we propose a framework for categorizing the companies investigated in terms of their distance from traditional 'iron rice-bowl' HR practices and proximity to 'imported' practices. This consists of two 'pure' and two hybrid categories: pure 'iron rice-bowl'; hybrid I (predominantly local); hybrid II (predominantly imported): and, finally, pure imported. In this schema, the companies examined do not however group neatly according to whether they are JVs or SOEs.     

Human resource management,trade unions and empowerment: two cases from India

This paper discusses the introduction of schemes aimed at employee empowerment within a context of strong industrial relations in India. The pressure put on profit margins by a competitive business environment is forcing an increasing number of Indian enterprises to view employee empowerment as a serious strategic option. Getting workers to take responsibility for shop-floor decisions over quality, safety, productivity and material use appears, at first sight, an alluring prospect. It would seem that men and women at the bottom of the pyramid cannot but be warmly appreciative of power-sharing arrangements from which they have something to gain, but there are forces at work which can actively obstruct or quietly subvert attempts at redistributing power. In this paper the focus is on some of the motives a trade union might have to do so.     

Flexibility and labour management: Chinese manufacturing enterprises in the 1990s

The rapid economic growth and structural reform that have taken place in China over the past two decades have had a substantial impact on the system of labour management in Chinese manufacturing enterprises. The purpose of this article is to document and analyse the nature of these changes in state-owned enterprises and joint venture companies. The effect of these changes on work relations, employment relations and industrial relations will form the basis of the analysis. The emphasis in the analysis will be on how work, employment and industrial relations have accommodated the demand for greater flexibility. Labour management in six manufacturing firms in the Shanghai region will be examined. This research is a pilot project for a larger-scale research in 1999. While no attempt is made to generalize the research findings, the research clarifies the extent and limits of flexibility in the current Chinese economy.     

The transformation of the wage and performance appraisal system in a Japanese firm

This paper analyses how performance appraisal has affected the wages of employees in a unionized Japanese firm over time, using firm-level wage and performance appraisal data. Data show that the wage and performance-appraisal systems have been shifting to a performance basis, and away from the heavy reliance on age and seniority characteristic of the old systems. In the process, wage differentials among employees are becoming wider, particularly among those 37 to 41 years old and those 49 to 55 years old. Management introduced the new wage system through a process of concessionary bargaining. Surprisingly, employees, rather than the enterprise union, were able to convince management to modify their initial plans during bargaining over the new wage system.     

Human resource management practices in Nigeria: challenges and insights

This paper generated current knowledge on aspects of human resource management practices in Nigeria from a sample of 185 human resource management professionals employed in over ninety-six corporations located in three major cities in Nigeria. Furthermore, the convergence/divergence/cross-vergence perspective was utilized to provide theoretical insights on the human resource management practices. The findings support a cross-vergence perspective as evidenced by the blend of human resource management practices reflecting both generalized or standardized practices and localized practices. Implications and direction for further studies are discussed.     

Globalization and transformation of human resource management in South Korea

Developments in the area of globalization, labour markets and human resource management (HRM) are topical and have high profiles. Yet they are often underpinned by several older and implicit views. This paper examines five propositions in this respect. We discuss globalization, often taken as driving such developments, and the role of supportive and limiting factors to its influence. We use the case of South Korea, as the main direction of change here is seen as from 'traditional' employment security and seniority-based systems of employee resourcing and rewarding, towards 'newer' flexible and performance-based ones. This seems, on the surface, a case of practice transfer in a somewhat inhospitable climate. We examine and evaluate the restraints, direction and extent of such changes, and arguments that HRM systems are being transformed by such developments. We find that the situation is more constrained and ambiguous.     

Modes of convergence and divergence: an integrative view of multinational practices in Pakistan

The last two decades have witnessed an immense growth of globalization activities, making the study of multinationals a very popular one. However, most of these studies have focused upon the use of socio-cultural variables to support the divergence theory or upon contextual and organizational variables to support the convergence theory. In the present study, it is debated that both sets of variables must be used in combination to develop a comprehensive understanding of various issues that multinationals face. A sample of five multinationals operating in Pakistan is analysed and classified as per the various modes of convergence-divergence proposed by McGaughey and De Cieri (1999) after an investigation of organizational, socio-cultural and contextual variables. The conclusion drawn is that both convergence and divergence issues may occur simultaneously in the process of human resource management (HRM) change; and that the variables used to explain them are, in fact, not immutable in nature, as has been assumed by many.     

The emergence of Human Resource Management in China: Convergence,divergence and contextualization

This article aims to use the emergence of Human Resource Management (HRM) in China to shed light on the dynamism of convergence, divergence and contextualization in the broader field. It argues that the ways used to manage people in China have diverged or converged with Western or foreign-developed theories and practices, in different institutional contexts and at different periods of time. Overlapping with this intellectual narrative, it looks at HRM in China in its contemporary historical setting, to show how theories such as the US-inspired Scientific Management and Human Relations and the Soviet model of Personnel Administration have influenced and shaped various ways of managing people. The bibliometric review of the unfolding of HRM in China presented in the article will, we argue, also shed further light on wider issues of convergence/divergence and contextualization.     

Multinationals and human resource practices in Ireland: a rejection of the 'new conformance thesis'

In a previous edition of this journal, Turner et al. (1997a) claim that the industrial relations and human resource management practices of multinational companies operating in Ireland bear a close resemblance to those of indigenous firms. The advancement of this (new) conformance thesis stands in stark contrast to much recent work on Irish industrial relations. In this paper we criticize Turner et al.'s argument for its failure to appreciate and acknowledge the weight of evidence both internationally and in Ireland which points to the predominance of 'country-of-origin effects' over 'hostcountry effects', especially in countries characterized by weak industrial relations systems. We are also critical of the empirical basis of the 'new conformance thesis'. In analysing data from a recently conducted national workplace survey our doubts as to the empirical validity and generalizability of Turner et al.'s results are confirmed. In brief, the 'new conformance thesis' is refuted and the employment relations practices of foreign- and particularly US-owned establishments are shown to be very different from those of Irish workplaces.     

Employment relations and labour market indicators in ten industrialized market economies: Comparative statistics

The acceleration of the internationalisation of business and the division of labour has been led by improvements in technologies and communications, decreased barriers to trade, increased competition and the growth of multinational enterprises (MNEs). Employers, government organizations and unions, practitioners and academics are increasingly concerned with locating comparable statistics. This article reviews employment relations and labour market data for ten major industrialized market economies (IMEs) and discusses some of the challenges in the measurement and interpretation of such data. For a fuller discussion of such data, and of the ten IME, see Greg J. Bamber and Russell D. Lansbury (eds) International and Comparative Employment Relations 3rd edn, to be published by Sage, London, and Allen & Unwin, Sydney, in mid-1998.     

Globalization,employment relations and human resources indicators in ten developed market economies: international data sets

This paper provides statistical information on internationalization, human resources and labour market outcomes in ten important developed market economies (DMEs). Such data are useful for practitioners and academics who are interested in international HRM. The article's aim is to provide easily accessible statistical tables of selected characteristics, which can be used to draw initial comparisons between countries and to test competing accounts of the impact of globalization on national patterns of employment relations. It includes standard sources so readers can elaborate and update these data.     

The impact of economic reform on the role of trade unions in Chinese enterprises

The movement of the Chinese economy towards a market orientation has been characterized by high levels of foreign direct investment, the diversification of forms of public ownership and the growing economic significance of the private sector as the PRC joins the global economy. These changes have clearly had a significant impact over time on the Chinese labour-force. This study, based on a geographically dispersed sample of sixty-two enterprises, both state-owned and joint venture, examines the effect of these economic reforms on industrial and labour relations, and in particular on the role of trade unions at plant level.     

Introduction: human resource management in Africa

This article introduces the special issue that seeks to spur the debate on the challenges of managing people in organizations in Africa. The debate on HRM in Africa has proceeded with tentative steps and now clearly needs to be located firmly within the international management context. It is not the purpose of this special issue to discover or develop an over-arching model of HRM. That has been attempted elsewhere. Our purpose is to bring together the various threads that characterize the on-going debate and hopefully move towards a more specific research agenda which captures the complexity of managing on the African continent. Some of these threads include the formulation of new perspectives on HR research, finding common ground with diverse disciplines and tackling enduring problems like ethnicity and discrimination.     

Flexible work practices and human resource management: a comparison of South African and foreign owned companies

This study compares the use of flexible work practices in wholly owned South African (SA) companies with that in foreign-owned companies. Data were obtained from questionnaire results of a study conducted by Horwitz and Franklin (1996) of flexible work practices in SA organizations. The questionnaire was used as part of a collaborative research project involving three countries (Brosnan et al ., 1996). It was found that SA-owned companies use certain flexible work practices to a lesser extent than foreign-owned companies. This was found to be the case particularly in the use of numerical forms of flexibility, such as sub-contractors/consultants and the use of temporary employees. Use of subcontractors/consultants and temporary staff agencies was found to be the greatest in partially foreign-owned companies. A larger proportion of foreign-owned companies have lower labour costs than do SA-owned companies. This has, however, not been as a result of the greater use of flexible work practices. Foreign-owned companies make more joint decisions with unions than do SA-owned companies when changing work practices.     

Cultural barriers in the transferability of Japanese and American human resources practices to developing countries: the Turkish case

Multinational enterprises can be expected to increase their chances of success by understanding the socio-cultural systems of the regions in which they operate. This paper examines the applicability of Japanese and American human resources management practices in Turkey within a socio-cultural perspective. Emphasizing the contextual differences between developing and industrialized countries and comparing work-related values of the three countries, the paper argues that Japanese human resources practices are more compatible with Turkish societal characteristics than are their American or Western counterparts.     

Human resource strategies,workplace reform and industrial restructuring in Australia and New Zealand

In recent years, Australia and New Zealand have pursued two different routes of labour market reform. New Zealand opted for a radical experiment in the deregulation of industrial relations and other areas. Australia pursued a co-operative and co-ordinated approach to reform within the centralized arbitral system. Both reform initiatives were designed to stimulate improvements in organizational performance and cost competitiveness. In this paper, we argue that there are three main types of strategies that management can use to reduce labour cost and improve performance: productivity-enhancement, costminimization and work-intensification strategies. We argue that the former is a long-term sustainable strategy whereas the latter two are negative short-term strategies that may have deleterious longer-term effects. This paper reports the results of a cross-national survey in New Zealand and Australia into the extent of adoption of these management strategies. The results are presented by industry, employment size, mode of operation and countries as a whole. The research findings indicate that New Zealand's decentralization has encouraged a higher degree of employer experimentation with both positive and negative workplace change strategies, especially in the private sector. Australia's more centralized system limited the use of cost-minimization strategies but not productivity-enhancing strategies in the public and not-for-profit sector. The research found evidence of work intensification in both countries.     

Complementarity or competition: the development of human resources in a South-East Asian Growth Triangle: Indonesia,Malaysia and Singapore

Globalization has led to the emergence and strengthening of regional and subregional economic co-operation as a means of promoting economic growth. In East Asia, a new kind of sub-regional economic zone known as a 'Growth Triangle' is gaining increasing popularity. This article explains the concept of the Growth Triangle and traces its proliferation in East Asia. It examines the conditions for the success of Growth Triangles and the policies pursued by the various participating governments. It then argues that effective human resource development (HRD) policies are essential for the participating governments to enjoy the benefits of the Growth Triangles. Arguably, the HRD policies within the Growth Triangle should be complementary rather than competitive. But using the 'Indonesia-Malaysia-Singapore' Growth Triangle (IMS-GT) as an example, this research asserts that in reality co-operation and complementarity in the HRD arena will give way to competition as the Triangle develops.     

Economic marginalism and the microstate,the impact of donor conditionality requirements in international aid programmes on a SHRM training project in the Cook Islands

Donor conditionality involves the formal terms and commitments under which major international aid agencies, such as the World Bank and the IMF grant aid or arrange loans for developing countries. In doing so, said agencies have tended to emulate, as a matter of policy, private-sector market reforms based on the contemporary neoclassical model. As a consequence, donor conditionality tends to place formalized and regular stress on inflationary control, privatization of publicly owned equity and the deregulation of public-sector employment. In turn, the functional utility of strategic human resource management as a vehicle able to obtain major change-related outcomes has tended to give it an important role in the implementation process. This paper reports on events that took place in the Cook Islands, a central Pacific microstate, during a university-based training course for public service managers in which the government imposed on a virtual exercise the full weight of real decisionmaking process. It will attempt to place this action in a larger context by, first, critically examining the tendency for SHRM initiatives to be distorted - a situation that arises when the requirements of donor conditionality do not fit the economic, social and cultural conditions in which they are to be applied. It will conclude by reviewing some of the issues to be debated should the tendency to use a single model of reform be replaced by a more country-friendly programme of requirements.     

Strategic segmentation in front-line services: matching customers,employees and human resource systems

This paper examines variation in the use of high involvement work practices in service and sales operations. I argue that the relationship between the customer and front-line service provider is a central feature that distinguishes production-level service activities from manufacturing. In particular, through strategic segmentation, firms are able to segment customers by their demand characteristics and to match the complexity and potential revenue stream of the customer to the skills of employees and the human resource system that shapes the customer–employee interface. Unlike manufacturing, where high involvement systems have emerged in a wide variety of product markets, therefore, service organizations are likely to use high involvement systems only to serve higher value-added customers because of the high costs of these systems and the labour-intensive nature of services. Data from a nationally random sample of 354 call centres in US telecommunications documents this pattern: from classic mass production approaches for back office workers and increasingly for front office residential service agents, to greater involvement for small business service providers and high involvement practices for middle-market service agents.