Structural Determinants of Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in Turnover Models

Using Meta-Analytical Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the relationships between structural determinants of job satisfaction and organizational commitment were investigated in the context of contemporary turnover models. Data for this study were obtained from nine empirical studies conducted under the direction of James L. Price and Charles W. Mueller at the University of Iowa. The results suggest that only three structural determinants (distributive justice, promotional chances, and supervisory support) are directly related to organizational commitment over and above their impact on job satisfaction. The effect size of these direct links, however, is small in that they are not detectable in smaller samples (e.g., n=244). On the other hand, most structural determinants are directly related to job satisfaction. The notable exception is the amount of pay employees received which is not related to either job satisfaction or organizational commitment. These findings and implications for future turnover research are discussed.     

International human resource management: a North American perspective,a thematic update and suggestions for future research

This research explores the direct influence of pay referents and procedural justice on pay satisfaction, job satisfaction and organization satisfaction, and the mediating role of these three aspects of satisfaction between forms of justice and unionization propensity. To test the importance and directions of these relations, we used a LISREL-type structural equation model. The findings showed that the three equity referents of organizational justice (internal, external and individual) are linked to pay satisfaction, and that distributive justice is a better predictor of pay satisfaction than procedural justice perceptions. In contrast, procedural justice is a better predictor of organizational satisfaction and job satisfaction than are distributive justice perceptions. The final model suggests that job satisfaction and organization satisfaction significantly influence propensity to join a union compared with organizational justice perceptions. The paper also specifies the limitations of the study and its practical implications, and makes suggestions for future research.     

The Paradox of the Contented Female Worker: Why Are Women Satisfied with Lower Pay?

Although women in general are aware of and concerned about the gender wage gap, individual women do not report significantly greater dissatisfaction with their pay, which has been termed “the paradox of the contented female worker” (Crosby 1982). The current study proposes a model of the factors leading to pay satisfaction to explain this paradox based on Major’s (Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 26:293–355, 1994) work on entitlement. In general, support was found for the hypothesized relationships. The results of this study indicate that although women have lower pay, they do not necessarily feel entitled to higher pay, and thus are not dissatisfied with pay. Women also tended to select female referents who are lower paid, which may account for some of their lower feelings of entitlement. Additionally, although men and women did not differ in the value placed on pay, value of pay was found to relate negatively to pay satisfaction. Based on these findings, researchers interested in pay satisfaction are encouraged to investigate additional personal and situational characteristics that affect referent choice and perceptions of fair pay.     

Pay increase satisfaction: A reconceptualization of pay raise satisfaction based on changes in work and pay practices

A new perspective on pay raise satisfaction, termed “pay increase satisfaction,” is conceptualized and used to guide the development of measures to supplement the widely used Pay Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ) [Int J Psychol 20 (1985) 129.]. The need for this new conceptualization lies in the nature of contemporary work and pay systems, particularly to those organizations adopting new strategic pay practices. Six dimensions of pay increase satisfaction are proposed: pay increase amount, pay increase opportunity, pay increase form, pay increase requirements, pay increase personal control, and pay increase rules. These dimensions are necessary to capture elements of the pay satisfaction domain not currently being captured by the PSQ. Implications for future research are discussed.     

金钱偏好：如何影响薪酬和薪酬满意度之间的关系？

本研究运用问卷调查法考察了薪酬和金钱偏好对薪酬满意度的四个方面（薪酬水平满意度、福利满意度、薪酬管理满意度、薪酬增长满意度）的不同影响。来自同一家企业的139名员工参加了调查,完成了金钱偏好和薪酬满意度问卷,并报告了他们的薪酬水平。在对139个员工样本的多元回归分析中发现：薪酬对福利满意度有显著的积极影响,而金钱偏好对薪酬水平满意度和薪酬增长满意度有显著的消极影响。进一步,又考察了金钱偏好对薪酬和薪酬满意度的四个维度之间关系的调节效应,发现：在低金钱偏好组中,薪酬对福利满意度和薪酬增长满意度有显著的积极影响;而在高金钱偏好组中,薪酬对四个薪酬满意度维度均没有显著影响。我们讨论了研究结果对管理实践的意义。     

六安市某县新农合满意度及其影响因素分析

目的:了解六安市某县居民对新农合的知晓程度、满意度评价及影响满意度的因素。方法:本研究利用方便随机抽样的方法于六安市某县医院调查了57个患者以管中窥豹进行探讨研究。结果:①对新农合起付线、报销比例、报销程度了解的患者比例均不超过50%;②对新农合制度满意度评价尚可,但仍有提升空间,非常满意或者比较满意的患者比例为80%左右;③所有患者表示第二年愿意继续参保,但是参保缴费保守;④随着参合时间的增加,新农合满意度增加,男性对新农合的满意程度高于女性。结论:提高新农合满意度则需要保持现有缴费基础上,完善经办机构管理,提高经办效率,提高报销比例。     

薪酬战略与薪酬满意度的关系

本文对我国三个地区11家企业287份有效问卷进行统计分析,在控制了基本的个人和组织变量、工资水平后,结果发现基于岗位的薪酬制度能提高薪酬管理、福利两方面的满意度;有奖金的薪酬制度能提高薪酬水平的满意度;高于外部市场平均水平的薪酬制度能提高薪酬管理、福利两方面的满意度;以长期绩效来定奖金的薪酬制度与薪酬满意度不相关;以个体绩效为主要标准确定奖金的薪酬制度能提高四个方面的薪酬满意度。     

The construction of a composite index for general satisfaction in Turkey and the investigation of its determinants

The goal of public enterprises is to increase the wealth and happiness of individuals. This target lets them make the investment to fulfill these expectations. However, not all citizens in a country might have the same opportunities. This case requires comparing citizens who live in cities with regard to satisfaction levels. This study consists of two stages. In the first stage, a composite index called the General Satisfaction Index (GSI), which aims to explain the satisfaction levels of citizens living in cities, is obtained by using the Benefit of the Doubt method. Contrary to the previous studies, the satisfaction indicators based on the emotions and senses of citizens are used to construct a composite index. Satisfaction indicators’ contribution to GSI is ensured using the minimum weights. In the second stage of this study, socioeconomic determinants of GSI are investigated in both countrywide and regions by using regularized regression methods. In the result of the regression analyze, it is confirmed that there are different socioeconomic determinants of satisfaction levels for countrywide and each region. For this reason, it is proposed that policymakers should follow different politicizes in each region to increase the satisfaction levels of citizens in the country.     

非经济性薪酬和组织公平性对薪酬满意度的影响

员工的薪酬满意度是衡量企业薪酬管理的重要指标。员工的薪酬满意度越高,薪酬的激励效果就越明显。薪酬管理具有留住老员工吸引新员工的作用。薪酬满意度的影响因素除了薪水、福利等经济性薪酬外还包括非经济性薪酬。从非经济性薪酬和组织公平性两个方面对薪酬满意度的影响进行研究,得出非经济性薪酬中社会地位、个人价值实现和工作挑战性对薪酬满意度有显著影响,组织公平性对薪酬满意度也有影响。     

Research Directions

The research that can be done on compensation clearly exceeds the amount that has been and is likely to be done. Dramatic changes in the nature of work organizations and the business environment have created numerous important new reward system research topics that warrant attention. For example, the increased globalization of corporations, the increased use of information technology, and the increased use of contingent workers all raise literally hundreds of interesting researchable questions about the use of and consequences of different pay and reward practices. The articles in this volume raise many critically important questions about both the determinants of pay practices and the consequences of pay practices. Interestingly, in the articles, there is a greater focus on the determinants of pay practices than on their consequences. This is an orientation that is not present in much of the research on compensation. It tends to be more concerned with the consequences of different pay practices rather than on their determinants.Given the enormous number of researchable questions concerning pay in organizations, it is important to ask what issues should be front and center in a research agenda on pay. In short, what do we really need to know about pay systems? Before I answer this question, I need to identify one of my major biases. I believe research should focus on topics where the results are likely to be both theoretically and practically important. Given this bias, I am inclined to identify five areas where research on pay in organizations is particularly likely to yield useful results.     

The Causal Order of Job Satisfaction and Organizational Commitment in Models of Employee Turnover

This study examines four possible models of the causal relationship between job satisfaction and organizational commitment in models of employee turnover: (1) satisfaction precedes commitment, (2) commitment precedes satisfaction, (3) satisfaction and commitment have a reciprocal relationship, and (4) satisfaction and commitment have no significant relationship. Structural equation models with two-wave panel data reveal no significant effects between satisfaction and commitment, and the overall fit for each of the four alternative models is virtually identical. Although analysis of the alternative models suggests the relationship between satisfaction and commitment may be spurious due to common determinants, alternative explanations for these results and conclusions for turnover research are discussed.     

价值观、积极情感与薪酬满意度的关系

通过对一家高科技制造型上市公司175名员工的调查数据,分析了价值观、积极情感和薪酬满意度各个维度的关系。结果表明,价值观、积极情感和薪酬水平的交互作用对薪酬水平满意度、薪酬管理满意度和薪酬提升满意度有显著影响,但对薪酬福利满意度的影响不显著;同样的薪酬水平,经济型价值观的高积极情感员工的薪酬满意度高于低积极情感的员工,且薪酬水平的变化对薪酬满意度的影响更加显著。     

MALE OCCUPATIONAL MOBILITY IN BRITAIN*

ABSTRACTS This paper examines the role of pay, human capital and mismatch in the decision to quit an occupation. Particular emphasis is given to human capital accumulation where occupations provide a fixed amount of training opportunities. An occupational quits equation is estimated using micro data from the National Training Survey, 1974. Education, training, pay and lifecycle effects are found to have a significant impact on the quit decision. The determinants of intra-firm promotion and inter-firm occupational mobility are also examined.     

Executive compensation and gender: S&;P 1500 listed firms

We examine if a gender gap persists in executive compensation and if the composition and the determinants of executive compensation for men versus women are the same for the S&P1500 listed firms during the period from 1992 to 2004. This analysis is also extended to high tech firms, where high scholarship is required both for male and female executives. The results reveal that the gender gap in executive compensation is reducing essentially after the year 2000. Also, the factors that explain the variation in executive compensation are not all the same for men and women. However, firms continue to pay women, who are considered more risk averse than men, a similar proportion of risky compensation components, such as stock options and restricted stocks, than they pay to men. In terms of technology firms, we find that the gender differences in total compensation are not statistically significant. Our study offers insight into recent data for executive compensation. The finding that the gender gap diminishes is a sign of a better functioning market for executives. Our findings could be potentially useful for compensation committees in order to develop compensation packages that take into consideration the degree of risk aversion in order to enhance performance. Compensation adjusted for risk aversion can produce a higher level of satisfaction for the employees and can lead to better performances. Future research should focus on international comparison of various dimensions of executive compensation.     

Expatriate pay satisfaction: the role of organizational inequities,assignment stressors and perceived assignment value

Using equity, stress and buffer theories, we investigate the role played by organizational inequities (organizational justice and provision of benefits) and assignment stressors (work adjustment and role novelty) in predicting expatriate pay satisfaction. We also assess the role of perceived assignment value as an important buffer that moderates the above relationships. With a sample of 78 expatriates from nine nationalities working in Hong Kong, we find that organizational justice and work adjustment are both positively related to expatriate pay satisfaction. We also find that perceived assignment value strengthens the provision of benefits–pay satisfaction and work adjustment–pay satisfaction relationships. Limitations and managerial implications are discussed.     

A case study on the application of Fuzzy QFD in TRIZ for service quality improvement

The improvement of service quality so as to enhance customer satisfaction has been widely mentioned over the past few decades. However, a creative and systematic way of achieving higher customer satisfaction in terms of service quality is rarely discussed. Recently, TRIZ, a Russian acronym which means “Theory of Inventive Problem Solving,” has been proven to be a well-structured and innovative way to solve problems in both technical and non-technical areas. In this study, a systematic model based on the TRIZ methodology is proposed to generate creative solutions for service quality improvement. This is done by examining first the determinants of service quality based on a comprehensive qualitative study in the electronic commerce sector. Then the correlation between the imprecise requirements from customers and the determinants of service quality is analyzed with Fuzzy Quality Function Deployment (QFD) in order to identify the critical determinants relating to customer satisfaction. After which, the corresponding TRIZ engineering parameters can be effectively applied in the TRIZ contradiction matrix to identify the inventive principles. A case study is illustrated to demonstrate the effectiveness of our approach in an e-commerce company, and its results are presented to show the applicability of the TRIZ methodology in the e-service sector.     

Disability status,individual variable pay,and pay satisfaction: Does relational and institutional trust make a difference?

Although prior research suggests that disabled employees have different needs in the context of some HRM practices, we know little about their reactions to reward systems. We address this gap in the literature by testing a model using the 2011 British Workplace Employee Relations Survey (disabled employees, n = 1,251; nondisabled employees, n = 9,959; workplaces, n = 1,806) and find that disabled employees report lower levels of pay satisfaction than nondisabled employees, and when compensated based on individual performance, the difference in pay satisfaction is larger. We suggest that relational (derived from trust in management) and institutional (derived from firm‐wide policies and HRM practices, both intended to provide equitable treatment to disabled employees) forms of trust play important roles. The results of multilevel analyses show that when trust in management is high, the difference in pay satisfaction under variable pay is reduced. We find just the opposite for employees who work in organizations with a formal disability policy but without supportive HRM practices; the gap in pay satisfaction is exacerbated. However, the combination of the presence of a firm‐wide policy and HRM practices reduced the difference in pay satisfaction. Implications of the findings for theory, future research, and management practice are discussed.     

Opposition to unions in the non-union sector in Britain

Using data collected from over 1,000 individuals in 30 Finnish personnel funds, we study the links between pay knowledge, pay satisfaction and pay effectiveness. We find consistent evidence that higher levels of pay knowledge are associated with improved pay satisfaction and perceived pay effectiveness at the organizational level. We find that pay knowledge has an independent impact on organizational outcomes, rather than being mediated through pay satisfaction. Finally, comparing measures of actual pay knowledge and perceived pay knowledge, we find that the measures of actual knowledge were better connected to the outcomes. This last result suggests that to reliably estimate the relationship between pay knowledge and pay effectiveness researchers should prefer measures of actual knowledge.     

Contextual Determinants of Variable Pay Plan Design: A Proposed Research Framework

Increasingly, organizations are using variable pay plans to reward employees for the results that they achieve. Current discussion of variable pay focuses on variable pay plan design mechanics, with insufficient attention given to contextual variables that may affect variable pay plan design. We offer a preliminary framework for examining the contextual determinants of variable pay plan design. Components of the framework include characteristics of the environment, characteristics of the organization, and the organization's pay strategies. Propositions for future research are offered.