Consumers’ perception of reduced calorie meals: How low is “Low-Calorie”?

ABSTRACT

With consumers becoming increasingly health conscious, the demand for reduced calorie food has significantly increased over the years. However, the definition of low-calorie food remains unclear. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to investigate consumers’ perception of reduced calorie meals, from the perspective of the maximum calorie level that consumers would consider as “low-calorie.” Survey data were collected using MTurk. In addition to respondents’ perception of the calorie count of low-calorie food when eating out and eating at home, respondents’ attitude toward low-calorie food, behaviors about consuming low-calorie food and exercise frequency, and demographic information were also assessed in the survey. The results demonstrate that consumers’ calorie perception of low-calorie food served in restaurants is consistent among different types of restaurants. Moreover, consumers believe that a low-calorie meal served in restaurants should be under 367 calories for breakfast, 500 calories for lunch, and 677 calories for dinner. Lastly, consumers perceive home-cooked meals to be lower in calories than restaurant food. This study is the first attempt to explore consumers’ definition of a low-calorie meal served in restaurants. The findings will provide guidance to restaurant operators in designing menus, and help policymakers better understand the ongoing need to develop a sound and comprehensive definition for the term “low-calorie.”     

Understanding gay consumers’ clothing involvement and fashion consciousness

This study’s primary objective was to provide a better understanding of gay consumers’ clothing involvement and fashion consciousness. Personal in‐depth interviews were conducted with 13 gay professionals in Canada. One hundred and forty‐five usable survey questionnaires were also collected from gay consumers. The Fashion Involvement Index Scale (FII scale) was adapted for this study. Interview participants indicated that, in general, gay men tend to be more fashion conscious than heterosexual men. Survey results also indicated two dimensions, fashion interest and fashion awareness that were found to be stronger for this group of gay consumers than for heterosexual men. The FII value for the survey participants also resulted in a sum score mean value of 11.2, a medium level of fashion involvement that is a slightly higher level than has been found for heterosexual consumers. Interestingly, this study does not provide strong evidence of gay consumers’ involvement in cutting‐edge fashion trends.     

Exploring the Antecedents and Consequences of Míng Pái Kòng (Brand-Name Fanaticism) Among China's Generation Y

ABSTRACT

The authors examine antecedents and consequences of míng pái kòng (MPK)–brand-name fanaticism, obsessive fandom, and purchases of global name brands―among a large number of Gen-Yers in China. This phenomenon is scrutinized because Confucian virtues discourage self-expressive, materialistic flaunting behaviors. A survey of 510 respondents finds that consumers’ need for uniqueness and peer influence affect brand consciousness, MPK, and willingness to pay a price premium for name-brand merchandise. Results indicate that relationships between brand consciousness and MPK are more evident in males and suggest that MPK may be marked by incongruity between projections of status and self. Managerial implications are discussed.     

The Influence of Consumers' Environmental Sensitivity on Product Choices

Abstract

Given that current landfills are running out of space, consumers are becoming more concerned with reducing waste-particularly in product packaging. The literature cites conflicting findings regarding who is the environmentally conscious consumer. Some researchers have pointed to attitudinal characteristics while others emphasized demographic characteristics as predictors of environmental consciousness. Hence the purpose of the study was to predict the factors that influence intention to purchase environmentally packaged products. A convenience sample surveyed students enrolled in a southern California university (n = 179). The questionnaire was developed to assess respondents' attitudes regarding an organization's role in environmental conservation, societal orientation to physical surroundings, attitudes toward solid waste, intention to purchase environmentally packaged products and demographic characteristics. Results of Stepwise regression analysis indicated that attitudinal factors, not demographic characteristics, played a larger role in predicting intention to purchase environmentally packaged products at the p < 0.001 level. Implications of these findings suggest that marketers need to target those with strong attitudes toward the environment rather than market segment profiles based on demographic characteristics.     

Theory into practice: meditations on cultures of accountability and interdisciplinarity in marketing research

Abstract

The emergence of a more reflexive and discerning customer has created inter alia a demand for ‘better’ food (i.e. quality and ‘authenticity’) in terms of sourcing, processing, and specialist distribution/retailing. As a consequence, the food production/distribution industry is under pressure to change many of its practices. One manifestation is the emergence of farmers' markets and the associated emphasis on ‘local’ food. This paper aims to identify the extent to which ‘conscious’ consumers are committed to buying local foodstuffs and supporting local food producers, especially from farmers’ markets. Given the exploratory nature of this research, a qualitative approach was undertaken using in-depth interviews with ‘conscious’ consumers. The results reveal that ‘conscious’ consumers recognise their own limitations (i.e. time, convenience, and price) but also demonstrate that integrating ethical considerations into their consumption behaviour is a complex and flexible task. A number of strategic actions for farmers’ markets are proposed to help differentiate their provision, particularly in terms of capitalising on perceptions of authenticity and locality.     

Spending propensity and price perceptions

ABSTRACT

This article presents a systematic investigation of how Spending Propensity moderates consumers’ perceptions of prices. Results from three studies are presented. Studies 1 and 2 reveal that, in the absence of any external cues, consumers who are predisposed to spending freely evaluate a posted price more favorably than those who are not. Such consumers also report anticipating less pain associated with spending than those who are not inclined to spend. Additionally, Study 2 informs that simple price communication tactics, without any real reduction in price, may be effective at mitigating the pain felt among those who are less inclined to spend. Furthermore, such tactics are capable of reducing, and even reversing, the gap between those who are not predisposed to spending and those who are. Finally, Study 3 explores how spending propensity moderates consumers’ perceptions of a discount.     

Weighing in on Fast Food Consumption: The Effects of Meal and Calorie Disclosures on Consumer Fast Food Evaluations

An analysis of consumers' Weblogs and two experiments address: (1) the differences in evaluations of menu items when consumers are versus are not provided with meal calorie information, and (2) their perception of calorie levels of different types of meals. Consumers provided their calorie estimates for specific meals offered by four different fast food restaurants, and an experiment assessed effects on consumer evaluations for calorie disclosures for actual items from two of these restaurants. Results show the complex relationship between consumer perceptions regarding the restaurants, the meals and the food items that can influence consumers' calorie estimates and evaluations of meals in restaurants.     

Influences of background colors and calorie information disclosure on consumers’ psychological process

ABSTRACT

This research explores the influences of menu background colors and calorie disclosure on consumers’ psychological process: dynamics of emotional arousal, temptation, and self-control. Findings from an experimental study showed that a red (the warmest color) against a blue (the coolest color) or white background induces higher emotional arousal and temptation, which led consumers to purchase greater amounts of indulgent foods. In the presence of calorie information, however, elevated arousal and strengthened temptation driven by the background color effects were reversed: a red against a blue or white background elicited a higher level of self-control and lower levels of arousal and temptation, which led consumers to purchase fewer indulgent food items. Therefore, an investigation into the underlying process reveals that consumers can trade their elevated desires (arousal and temptation) and willpower (self-control).     

Consumer responses to characteristics of price-matching guarantees: The moderating role of price consciousness

The present study develops and tests a conceptual model of consumer response to different types of price-matching characteristics (i.e., refund depth, length, and scope) across consumer segments with varying levels of price consciousness. A computer shopping simulation results show that a deep refund is interpreted as a signal of low prices by nonprice conscious consumers. However, price conscious consumers are found to associate deep refunds with increased prices, an unintended outcome for the retailer. The effects of price-matching characteristics on search and purchase behavior were also found to vary across more and less price conscious consumer segments.     

Brands and religious labels: a spillover perspective

Abstract

With different religions mixing in many societies, religious consumer groups receive increasing attention as target segments. Trying to appeal to such religious segments, companies differentiate food products by adding religious labels (e.g. kosher or halal) to packaging. But while this makes the products more attractive to the consumers of the focal religion, adding a religious label may also impact the brand evaluation by consumers with no religious beliefs or a different religious orientation. Drawing upon social identity theory to explain the psychological basis of inter-group discrimination, and taking account of information integration theory to analyse how religious labels affect product and brand evaluations, this article aims to assess the spillover effects between religion and brand among consumers who are not part of the religious communities addressed by these labels. The findings indicate that the perception of religious labels on food packaging is influenced by the attitudes towards the religion and the brand, while the relative importance of both antecedents is dependent upon several consumer characteristics. The theoretical and managerial implications of our findings, the limitations of our work and directions for future research are discussed.     

Examining shopping mall consumer decision-making styles,satisfaction and purchase intention

Understanding consumer decision-making (CDM) styles is essential for market segmentation, positioning and crafting marketing strategies within a market. Few studies have examined the structural relationship among decision-making styles that consumers exhibit during mall shopping, level of satisfaction and purchase intention. The purpose of this study was to examine CDM styles as the antecedents and predictors of level of satisfaction and purchase intention. Based on the Consumer Styles Inventory, eight CDM styles that individual exhibit during shopping mall activities are proposed in terms of utilitarian and hedonic perspectives. We hypothesize these eight CDM styles as a set of predictors of customer satisfaction and purchase intention. A total of 327 valid paper-and-pencil questionnaires were collected from several shopping malls in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. Partial least squares (PLS) path modelling approach, a structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) technique was performed to test the proposed structural relationships. The empirical assessment supports that hedonic shopping styles consumers that exhibit high level of habitual, brand consciousness, fashion consciosness, recreational conscious style have lower levels of satisfaction and purchase intention during mall shopping while novelty and fashion conscious style consumers have lower level of satisfaction but do not unveil lower purchase intention. Utilitarian shopping styles consumers that exhibit high level of price conscious, confused by overchoice and high-quality conscious style have higher levels of satisfaction while impulsive/careless shoppers do not; and while price conscious, impulsive/careless, confused by overchoice consumers have higher levels of purchase intention but the high-quality conscious consumers do not unveil higher purchase intention. Further, there is a positive relationship between satisfaction and purchase intention. The practical and managerial implications are discussed.     

Not all organic food is created equal: the role of product type,perceived authenticity,and construal level

Abstract

Consumption of processed organic food is on the rise while fresh organic food still dominates organic food market. Drawing from the literature on authenticity and construal level theory, this study aims to investigate the role of perceived authenticity and message construal level in consumers’ evaluations of two types of organic food (fresh vs. processed). Two experiments were conducted among college students (N = 129, Study 1) and adults 18–70 (N = 249, Study 2). Our findings suggest that consumers’ evaluations of organic food are fully mediated by perceived authenticity of each organic food type. Specifically, compared to processed organic food, consumers perceive fresh organic food more authentic, which leads to more favorable attitudes and higher purchase intention. This research further demonstrates that the indirect effect of organic food type via perceived authenticity is moderated by construal level of marketing messages. That is, when messages are construed at a low level, consumers tend to have more positive attitudes and higher purchase intention toward fresh than processed organic food. By contrast, product type makes no difference when messages are construed at a high level. These findings have clear implications on message development strategy when promoting processed organic food, in particular. Future research directions are discussed.     

Consumers’ forgiveness after brand transgression: the effect of the firm’s corporate social responsibility and response

Abstract

In this article we examine the interplay between the severity of a brand transgression, consumers’ prior awareness of the firm’s corporate social responsibility (CSR) initiatives, and the firm’s response (apology vs. apologia) on the rates of forgiveness among consumers. Results of two experiments show that consumers’ prior awareness of the firm’s CSR initiatives significantly differentiates apologia from apology, with the effect of apology on consumer forgiveness being more apparent when brand transgression severity is mild. Results also show that consumer forgiveness mediates the effect of brand transgression severity, firm response, and consumer awareness on repurchase intentions. In this way, the study enables managers to determine whether or not an apology or apologia will be sufficient to solicit consumer forgiveness, using information about the levels of awareness of CSR among consumers.     

Roads to Be Taken: The Intellectual Odyssey of Charles H. Sandage—by Charles H. Sandage,Center for the Study of Free Enterprise and Entrepreneurship,Graceland College Lamoni,Iowa, 1993. ISBN 0–9636457-0-6. $16 paperback $24 hardcover

Abstract

The “green gap” is traditionally thought of as the gap between how consumers intend to behave regarding green living and how they actually behave. We extend the idea of the green gap by demonstrating a different kind of disconcerting green gap. There are three levels of green advertising—with tensions embedded in their differing agendas. An ethnographic content analysis and phenomenological interviews reveal that there is a macro agenda of saving the planet associated with nonprofit green advertisers. There is a meso agenda associated with for- profit enterprises. These commercial approaches do not appear to be aligned with consumers' micro agendas of saving one's own part of the planet (or at the very least, of not wasting one's part of it, as perpetuated by consumers). We then provide solutions for green advertisers in bridging this unsettling green gap among for-profit advertisers, nonprofit advertisers, and consumers who want to make being green and less wasteful easier in their everyday lives.     

The contribution of implicit cognition to the Theory of Reasoned Action Model: a study of food preferences

Abstract

Attitudes are at the heart of the Theory of Reasoned Action (TRA), but problems in defining and measuring attitudes have contributed to typically low ability to predict behaviour. This article investigates the impact of potential disjuncture between evaluations that an individual externally verbalises (explicit attitudes), and evaluations that are internally held and may exist outside of conscious awareness (implicit attitudes), on the predictive ability of TRA. We study consumers’ attitudes towards eating healthy food and subsequent behaviour in a context of socially consensual behaviour. An Implicit Association Test (IAT) is used to measure implicit attitudes, and these scores are contrasted with self-reported explicit attitude scores. Ninety one participants took part in the study. We found, surprisingly, that implicit attitude has no significant effect on behavioural intention. However, a disjuncture between an individual’s implicit and explicit attitudes, reflecting internal psychological conflict, affected behaviour.     

Can conscious consumption be learned? The role of Hungarian consumer protection education in becoming conscious consumers

The purpose of this research is to examine how consumer consciousness can be defined, along what dimensions it might be measured and, according to these dimensions, how conscious Hungarian university students are. In addition, it is also discussed how their consumer protection education might contribute to their consumer consciousness. Two hypotheses have been proposed concerning factors potentially affecting conscious consumer behaviour (gender; participation in consumer protection education). To test these hypotheses, a questionnaire survey has been conducted with a total of 280 respondents, whom are undergraduate students of a Hungarian university. It is found that different aspects of consciousness dominate the consumer decisions of females and males. Female respondents appear to be characterized more by hedonistic consumption but they are more price sensitive than males. Veblen effect is stronger for males, and they have greater trust in well‐known brands. Although the survey revealed that both research variables might affect consumer behaviour (not only gender but the participation in consumer protection education as well), the role of education cannot be unambiguously identified in the process of establishing consumer consciousness. On the one hand, the results show that the behaviour of ‘trained’ consumers is mainly characterized by price sensitiveness, while the other (‘non‐educated’) group is more reliant on marketing and brands. However, on the other hand, it might also be concluded that young adults participating in the survey already have their own consumer habits and preferences; therefore, their consumer behaviour is more difficult to be formed by means of education during their university years. These findings are nevertheless limited to Hungarian university students and cannot be generalized to the entire society or other countries.     

An Investigation of People's Time Orientation,Attitudes, and Behavior Toward Advertising in an International Context

ABSTRACT

Past studies have indicated that there are cross-cultural/national differences among people's perception of time and how they use time available for them and what factors affect their time-related purchasing and consumption decisions. It is stated that each culture or subculture could have its own dominant construct of time. The present study examines time use and orientation and time attitudes toward different activities, including advertising in an emerging economy of Georgia. Study results indicate that present orientation and consciousness of future, planning orientation, time saving, realization of present in the light of past, and action orientation are salient factors channeling time orientations of Georgian consumers.     

An exploration of consumers’ experiences in physical stores: comparing consumers’ and retailers’ perspectives in past and present time

Abstract

In this paper, we explore consumers’ in-store experiences and their components, from both a consumer and retailer perspective. This is a replication of a study we performed in 2006 and thus we also examine how the role of the physical store has changed over the last decade. We use the Critical Incident Technique (CIT) to improve our understanding of consumers’ in-store experiences. Moreover, we conduct in-depth interviews with Swedish retailers to achieve an understanding of how retailers use aspects of the store environment to enhance the consumer experience. Interestingly, our results suggest that consumers’ in-store experiences to a large extent are created by the same aspects today as ten years ago (e.g. personnel, layout, atmosphere). Furthermore, while retailers today emphasize the importance of fulfilling new and more advanced consumer demands, they often still accentuate the weight and use of traditional values (e.g. personnel and layout) ahead of advanced technology.