Cultural Change and Marketing

ABSTRACT

The results of this study suggest that marketing strategies need to be adjusted to changing cultures. Culture affects marketing decisions regarding product, price, promotion and place (the 4 Ps). Many marketing studies have been reported based on Hofstede's seminal work on national culture (1980). Marketing managers need to be cautious about assuming the validity of the Anglo cluster equating the cultures of the United States (U.S.) and Canada. We should recognize that national cultures are changing in the U.S., Canada and Mexico, as well as most other countries in the world. Our findings for a very recent sample of people attending executive and MBA programs would seem to apply to the upwardly-mobile business class. Contrary to the ubiquitous Hofstede data found in textbooks, we found no significant differences in Power Distance between the U.S., Mexico and Canada. Our findings regarding differences in Uncertainty Avoidance show that Mexico did not have a significantly higher mean than the U.S., but that the U.S. had a higher mean than Canada. The U.S. and Canada did not differ significantly on Individualism/Collectivism. Our results suggest that caution should be taken in automatically assuming cultural parity between the U.S. and Canada and that established cultural positions between the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) member nations may be changing.     

An Examination of Personal Values: Differences between Accounting Students and Managers and Differences between Genders

In this study we investigate whether work experience and genderdifferences impact personal values. Personal values areimportant to study because they provide the foundational beliefsthat ultimately shape behavior. Differences in personal valuescould have several important implications for public accountingincluding recruiting, training, behavior, and retention. Wefound more significant differences between genders than relatedto work experience, however, we did find some interestinginteractions between gender and experience. Within bothexperience level groups, the dominant value type among males wasthat of an Independent Maximizer (an individual value typeexemplified by Ivan Boesky and Donald Trump, who utilizescompetence to attain personal goals). The most dominant typeamong females was Virtuous Advocate (an individual value type,exemplified by Mahatma Gandhi and Mother Teresa, who utilizesmoral means to obtain social goals). Experience had very littleeffect on males, but major differences in value types were foundbetween the undergraduate females and the female businessmanagers, with a shift (student to manager) toward servingothers but using competence rather than moral means to reachthese ends. The implications of these results are discussed.     

Utility of Ethical Frameworks in Determining Behavioral Intention: A Comparison of the U.S. and Russia

Using Reidenbach and Robin‘s ( Journal of Business Ethics 7, 871–879, 1988) multi-criteria ethics instrument, we carried out the first empirical test of Robertson and Crittenden‘s (Strategic Management Journal 24, 385–392, 2003) cross-cultural map of moral philosophies to examine what ethical criteria guide business people in Russia and the U.S. in their intention to behave. Competing divergence and convergence hypotheses were advanced. Our results support a convergence hypothesis, and reveal a common emphasis on relativism. Americans are also influenced by the justice criterion while Russians tend to emphasize utilitarianism. Rafik I. Beekun (Ph.D., the University of Texas at Austin) is Professor of Management and Strategy in the Managerial Sciences Department at the University of Nevada, Reno. His current research focuses on business ethics, national cultures, and the link between management and spirituality. He has published in such journals as the Journal of Applied Psychology, Human Relations, Journal of Management, Journal of Business Ethics and Decision Sciences. Correspondence regarding this article should be addressed to him: MGRS 28, University of Nevada, Reno, NV 89557–0206. James Westerman is an Associate Professor of Management at Appalachian State University. He received his Ph.D. in management from the University of Colorado at Boulder. His research interests include person-organization fit, employee ethics, compensation, and selection. Jamal Barghouti (B.Sc., MBA, Ph.D Management) is currently Advisor on Petroleum Affairs, H.H. Ruler’s Court, Dubai. He is also a lecturer at local universities including Dubai University College in human resources management, international business, organizational behavior and business communication. He has about 35 years of experience in the oil industry in the U.S.A., U.K., Russia, and the Middle East.     

Cultural Values and International Differences in Business Ethics

We analyze ethical policies of firms in industrialized countries and try to find out whether culture is a factor that plays a significant role in explaining country differences. We look into the firm’s human rights policy, its governance of bribery and corruption, and the comprehensiveness, implementation and communication of its codes of ethics. We use a dataset on ethical policies of almost 2,700 firms in 24 countries. We find that there are significant differences among ethical policies of firms headquartered in different countries. When we associate these ethical policies with Hofstede’s cultural indicators, we find that individualism and uncertainty avoidance are positively associated with a firm’s ethical policies, whereas masculinity and power distance are negatively related to these policies. Bert Scholtens received his Ph.D. at the Universtiy of Amsterdam. Since 1999 he has been working at the Department of Finance of the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. His research particularly looks into the interaction between financial institutions and corporate social responsibility. He has published in, among others, Ecological Economics, Journal of Banking and Finance, Finance Letters, Journal of Investing, Sustainable Development, and Journal of Business Ethics. Lammertjan Dam is a Ph.D. student at the Universtiy of Groningen. He expects to defend his thesis about the integration of corporate social responsibility in economic valuation in Summer 2007.     

Shaping of Moral Intensity Regarding Software Piracy: A Comparison Between Thailand and U.S. Students

Software piracy is a major global concern forbusinesses that generate their revenues throughsoftware products. Moral intensity regardingsoftware piracy has been argued to be relatedto the extent of software piracy. Anunderstanding of the development of moralintensity regarding software piracy inindividuals would aid businesses in developingand implementing policies that may help themreduce software piracy. In this research westudied the similarities and differences indevelopment of moral intensity regardingsoftware piracy among university students intwo different cultures, the U.S. and Thailand. In particular, we studied the influence of theimmediate community of individuals, such asother students, faculty, and other universityemployees, on the development of moralintensity regarding software piracy of the twogroups of students. Results indicate that, ingeneral, there are significant differences inmoral intensity regarding software piracybetween students from the US and Thailand, andthat gender differences also exist. Though theeffect of the immediate community on theself-perception of moral intensity regardingsoftware piracy of students was significant,there appears to be very little significantdifferences in this effect between the studentsin the two different countries studied. Thefindings have implications for teachingbusiness ethics, and for developing andimplementing policies to curb global softwarepiracy.     

The Role of Language in the Communication Process Between Business and Government: Evidence from Russian Firms

Abstract

The paper investigates how language facilitates communication process between government and business. We use Russian context to show barriers and challenges of using language in official communication between governmental authorities and Russian companies. In our work, we demonstrate how language may produce employee’s misunderstanding and discuss typical sources of ineffective usage of language. The results indicate that problematic issues of both linguistic and non-linguistic nature can lead to serious implications for successful communication between government and business in Russia. We found that documentations’ complexity, which is perceived as such due to a complicated subject area they belong to (legal, tax, etc.) and language insufficiency applied are most likely to raise multiple problems related to government’s communication with business.     

Testing the Cross-National Applicability of U.S. and Russian Advertising Belief and Attitude Measures

Abstract

Examining the cross-national applicability of advertising measures is becoming increasingly important, especially in rapidly changing countries such as Russia. Therefore, our study's purpose is first to demonstrate recommended procedures for testing the cross-national equivalence of advertising belief and attitude measures. Then, we conduct an initial cross-national comparison of beliefs and attitudes toward advertising in general between student samples from both the U.S. (n=148) and from Russia (n=64). Results indicate that, while Russian respondents felt advertising is more essential, U.S. respondents felt advertising resulted in greater negative social effects. Also, U.S. respondents were more favorable toward the institution of advertising (its purpose and effects), with no differences for the instrument of advertising (its methods and practices). Russian respondents' attitudes toward advertising in general were more favorable than those of U.S. respondents.     

An Examination of Learning Preferences of U.S. and International Students

Learning styles and preferences are often discussed topics in educational psychology, but are less prevalent in business education. International students are another understudied segment of business education. This article reviews literature regarding learning styles and preferences and examines whether U.S. and international students have different learning preferences using the visual-aural-read/write-kinesthetic (VARK) model. The findings indicate a large percentage of both populations have multimodal learning preferences. For the students who have one preferred learning mode, differences do exist between international and U.S. students.     

Customer perceptions of frontline employee service delivery: A study of Russian bank customer satisfaction and behavioural intentions

This study examines the nature of relationships between customer perceptions of frontline employee service delivery (core and relational), satisfaction and selected behavioural intentions by using customers of a commercial retail bank in Russia as its setting. Contrary to findings from North American-Western research, the study findings show that relational service delivery only significantly impacts customer satisfaction for Russian males whereas core service delivery only impacts this affective outcome for Russian female customers. Implications of the results are discussed and future research avenues are offered.     

中美物流成本比较研究

本文对中美物流成本进行了定性和定量的对比分析,认为我国物流成本居高不下既有技术因素方面的原因,更有制度因素方面的原因。为降低我国物流成本,应切实转变政府职能,彻底打破行政性垄断;大力发展第三方物流,提升工商企业的核心竞争力;建立健全有关法律、法规,为现代物流业发展创造良好的制度环境;加快发展行业协会组织,充分发挥行业协会的作用;重视现代物流领域的研究和创新,加快培养现代物流专业人才。     

An Exploratory Comparison of Ethical Perceptions of Mexican and U.S. Marketers

This is a study of the effects of a number of background variables on ethical perceptions of Mexican and U.S. marketers. This research investigates how a marketer’s personal religiousness, relativism, and the ethical values influence in perceptions of the degree of ethical problems in hypothetical marketing scenarios. It also examines differences between Mexican and U.S. marketers on these variables. The results show significant differences in perception between the countries, and we discuss the implications of these differences for cross-cultural business activities. The authors wish to thank Rebecca McLaughlin for her help with data collection in Mexico     

Cultural Differences and Similarities in Television Commercials in the Arab World and the United States

Understanding the nature and influences of cultural differences is central to international marketing. This article investigates cultural differences in television advertising between the United States and a select group of countries in the Arab world on the cultural dimensions of contextualization, individualism/collectivism, time orientation, and human perception of nature. The results indicate that while there are many differences between the United States and the Arab world, there are also similarities. The results indicate that there are also differences between the Arab countries, and the Arab countries should not be viewed as the same in certain situations.     

美国双边投资协议与自由贸易协议负面清单的

本文深入考察了美国BIT和FTA负面清单的发展和演变过程,分析了两类协议负面清单的关联性和差异性。经过30多年的演变,美国的负面清单日益简洁和明确,新一代负面清单的政策透明度大大提高。美国BIT和FTA负面清单形式和内容的演进具有很强的关联性。目前,两类协议负面清单最主要的差异在于FTA增加了针对服务贸易的限制,包括在负面清单中增加涉及服务贸易的不符措施和在同一不符措施中增加涉及服务贸易的条款。在上述分析的基础上,本文从立法模式、立法内容和制度体系3个方面总结了美国负面清单管理制度可供中国借鉴的经验。     

A Comparative Analysis of Arab and U.S. Cultural Values on the Web

ABSTRACT

This study aims to explore the depiction of cultural values on global websites. There exists a research gap in terms of better understanding cross-cultural differences in web communications between the Arab and Western worlds. Thus, we conducted content analysis to examine the cultural values on websites from Arab countries and the U.S. The results suggest that local websites of Arab countries and the United States tend to differ significantly from each other on cultural contents. The proposed cultural findings can serve as a guide for creating culturally congruent international websites.     

Cultural Themes in Brazilian and U.S. Auto Ads: A Cross-Cultural Comparison

Abstract

Do Brazilian and U.S. advertisers employ different themes in print advertisements? If so, what can we conclude about cross-cultural differences in values? In our study of automobile ads that appeared in the business magazines of Brazil and of the U.S. during the 1970s, we found that (1) urban themes were used more frequently in Brazilian ads than in U.S. ads, (2) leisure themes were used more frequently in U.S. ads than in Brazilian ads, (3) work themes appeared as frequently in Brazilian ads as in U.S. ads, and (4) work themes appeared more frequently in U.S. ads as the 1970s progressed. Thus, our study suggests that values differ between the business subculture of Brazil and that of the United States. Importantly, our latter two findings disaffirm the theories of many historians and sociologists. Because the application of historical and sociological theories may produce erroneous advertising decisions, we advise advertisers to research carefully each national market before using a “standardized” advertising theme.     

Mentoring across cultures: The role of gender and marital status in Taiwan and the U.S.

We examined the interaction of gender and marital status on attaining mentors among 405 managers and professionals in contrasting Taiwanese and U.S. cultures. In line with social role and signaling theories and the cultural concepts of gender-egalitarianism and individualism/collectivism, married U.S. women had a lower likelihood of having a mentor compared to single women or men. Being married disfavored U.S. women but did not disfavor Taiwanese women. Further analyses using only the U.S. protégé sample also revealed that being married was positively related to psychosocial mentoring received only among male protégés. We discuss results from a cross-cultural perspective.     

My American Cousin: A Comparison Between Indian and the U.S. Malls

Malls came into existence because of changing patterns of urbanization and ways of living. The concept has traveled from the United States to the world over. Initially, the acceptance and awareness of malls was moderate in India, but there has been a spur in the proliferation of malls during recently. Indian malls are not an exact replica of the U.S. malls: the U.S. model has been modified resulting in development of India-specific prototypes. Indian malls differ from U.S. malls in terms of financing, location, size, expansion, architecture, stage of evolution, choice of anchor tenant, entertainment-mix, and mall management practices.     

Values and the Perceived Importance of Ethics and Social Responsibility: The U.S. versus China

This study examines the effects of nationality (U.S. vs. China) and personal values on managers’ responses to the Perceived Role of Ethics and Social Responsibility (PRESOR) scale. Evidence that China’s transition to a socialist market economy has led to widespread business corruption, led us to hypothesize that People’s Republic of China (PRC) managers would believe less strongly in the importance of ethical and socially responsible business conduct. We also hypothesized that after controlling for national differences, managers’ personal values (more specifically, self-transcendence values) would have a significant impact on PRESOR responses. The hypotheses were tested using a sample of practicing managers enrolled in part-time MBA programs in the two countries. The results indicate that nationality did not have a consistent impact on PRESOR responses. After controlling for national differences, self-transcendence values had a significant positive impact on two of the three PRESOR dimensions. Conservation values such as conformity and tradition also had a significant association with certain dimensions of the PRESOR scale. William E. Shafer is an associate professor in the Department of Accountancy at Lingnan University in Hong Kong. His primary research interests are professionalism and ethics in accounting and corporate social and environmental accountability. His publications have appeared in a variety of academic and professional journals, including Auditing: A Journal of Practice & Theory; Accounting Horizons; Accounting, Auditing & Accountability Journal; Business Ethics Quarterly; Journal of Business Ethics; Journal of Accountancy; and The CPA Journal. Kyoko Fukukawa is a lecturer in marketing at Bradford University School of Management and holds a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham, UK. Her research interests include ethical decision-making in consumption and business practices; corporate social responsibility (CSR) of MNCs concerning their policies and strategic communication; and CSR and corporate branding. Her publications appear in the Journal of Business Ethics, Journal of Corporate Citizenship and others. Grace M. Lee is an assistant professor is the Department of Accountancy at Lingnan University in Hong Kong. Her primary research interests are corporate financial disclosure and corporate social responsibility disclosure in the Greater China Region. She has published in the Journal of International Financial Management and Accounting and the Journal of Information Systems.     

Value co-creation and social media: Investigating antecedents and influencing factors in the U.S. retail banking industry

This study seeks to examine and unearth antecedents to co-creation behaviours within a U.S. retail banking context. A critical aspect for marketing managers and academics alike, co-creation has a strong influence on tangible factors such as profit and intangible factors such as referrals, satisfaction and feedback. Antecedents were identified as trust, customer engagement and participation attitude whilst social media usage was a consumer characteristic identified as influencing co-creation. Data was collected from 489 U.S. retail banking customers via an online survey. The data was analysed via structural equation modelling. The findings indicate that customer engagement influences trust, co-creation and participation attitude. Participation attitude was found to influence trust and co-creation but trust had no direct effect on co-creation. The study further found that social media usage intensity influenced co-creation behaviours. The findings contribute in three ways. First, this is one of the first studies to scrutinise participation attitude in an attempt to explain co-creation behaviours for U.S. banks over social media. Second, identification of precursors to value co-creation has been ascertained in a U.S. retail banking social media context. Third, the study additionally contributes to the findings that social media usage has a moderating effect in value co-creation and offers a potential segmentation strategy.