Non-transferable non-hedgeable executive stock option pricing

To value non-transferable non-hedgeable (NTNH) contingent claims and price executive stock options (ESOs), we use a replication argument to translate portfolios with NTNH derivatives into portfolios of primary assets (only) with stochastic portfolio constraints. By identifying stochastic discount factors and finding subjective prices of NTNH European and American ESOs, for block and continuous partial exercise, we derive executives׳ optimal exercise policies, and use these to find objective prices/costs of ESOs to firms. Through numerical simulations, we obtain policy implications regarding ESOs׳ incentivizing efficiency. For the first time, we demonstrate that, unlike under block exercise, subjective prices under continuous partial exercise may be higher than objective ones. Moreover, volatility regimes and executives׳ “other wealth” are important in ESO pricing, and are thus essential to empirical executive compensation studies.     

The effect of employee share ownership on employee commitment and turnover: comparing the cases in Britain and South Korea and the role of the economy

Despite the consensus in the employee share ownership (ESO) literature for the need to explore contexts that influence ESO outcomes, studies examining two important factors, national context and status of the economy, are limited. In this study, the authors compare the outcomes of ESOs in Britain and South Korea during economic expansion and downturn. The results demonstrate that, during an economic expansion, the effect of ESOs in increasing employee commitment is stronger in South Korea, while their effect in decreasing employee turnover is stronger in Britain. However, during an economic downturn, the authors find no evidence for these effects in both societies. The findings lend support to the contingency perspective in managing ESOs and provide meaningful implications and guidance to the literature.     

‘The True and Fair View’ of Executive Stock Option Valuation

ABSTRACT

We compare the market values of executive stock option (ESO) trades with their Black & Scholes (1973) model values calculated following the major accounting standards, SFAS No. 123r and IFRS2. Our results show major underpricing compared to the traditional B&S method values. This should be considered while applying SFAS No. 123r and IFRS2 for estimating fair values. Especially time to expiration has a major influence on the undervaluation suggesting that the possibility of a change in corporate structure lowers the cost of ESOs to shareholders.     

The non-uniform pricing effect of employee stock options using quantile regression

Issuing employee stock options (ESOs) transfers equity claims from current stockholders to employees, and thereby dilutes existing shareholder interests. Because employees are motivated to exert additional effort toward better performance, the value of transferred ownership claims proxied by ESO expense represents a cost of generating firm value. There are several econometric issues, most notably including the fact that the disclosed ESO expense is an endogenous variable. Without controlling for the simultaneity problem, inferences based on results from OLS analyses may be misleading. More importantly, a considerable amount of ESO expense data is censored at zero. Such a censoring problem can make the population distribution severely skewed, resulting in estimation bias. Therefore, we need to take into account the censored data issue. No prior studies have considered these two issues simultaneously. Failure to control for both censoring problem and endogeneity could explain the inconsistent results documented in prior studies. In this paper, we use the two-stage quantile regression (QR) proposed by Amemiya (1982) and Powell (1983) to examine possible nonlinear relationships, especially whether conditionally higher-stock price (or better performing) firms show a stronger negative pricing effect of ESO expense (that is, the relation between ESO expense and share price) than conditionally lower-share price firms. Our results suggest that the linear regression model greatly underestimates this negative pricing effect at higher quantiles, so the nonlinear relationship is obscure when using the standard linear model. We also consider alternative interpretations as to why heterogeneity exists in the pricing effect of ESO expense and assess whether our results concur with these explanations.     

Backdating executive stock options—An ex ante valuation

When backdating executive stock options (ESOs), the exercise price is set in favor of the recipient executive. Relative to a non-backdated benchmark, we find an (ex ante) upper bound for the cost of backdating to shrink from 10% to about 3.7%, as a consequence of the regime change represented by the Sarbanes-Oxley act (SOX).We frame the backdating behavior as a (compound) exotic option, considering both simple and extended models of the underlying ESO—in the latter case we draw on the analytical ESO models of Sircar and Xiong (2007). Post-SOX, we use a Longstaff-Schwartz inspired least squares Monte Carlo approach.     

Financial participation and recruitment and retention: causes and consequences

Using a sample of over 5000 establishments in Germany, we analyze the antecedents and effects of profit sharing (PS) and employee share ownership (ESO) with respect to the ability of firms to meet their recruitment and retention objectives and to achieve employment growth. We draw on both economic and behavioral perspectives to argue that firms that adopt PS and ESO plans do so in order to attract and retain employees. Using logistic regression and a propensity score matching technique, we find that firms that face higher recruitment problems, and those that have greater employment growth objectives, are more likely to use ESO and PS. Unlike ESO, PS enhances firm-level employment growth. However, neither ESO nor PS help firms to fully resolve recruitment and retention problems.     

Transaction Costs,Option Prices,and Model Risk in Fair Value Accounting

This paper examines the reliability of option fair value estimates in the presence of transaction costs. The Black Scholes Merton (BSM) framework assumes zero transaction costs and thus might not provide a reasonable approximation in this context. We investigate the model adjustments companies make to their BSM models to deal with these transaction costs. We specifically examine Employee Stock Option (ESO) plans listed on the French stock exchange, as detailed disclosure on modeling is available for these ESOs. Our analysis questions the reliability of these model adjustments, especially their bias and the extent to which they provide a faithful representation of option fair values. Holding parameter values constant, we find that the model adjustments lead to a median understatement of 52% compared to the BSM model price, higher than the discount we observe for the opportunistic determination of model parameters (below 20%). The paper contributes to the fair value literature by highlighting model risk in the fair valuation of options. This model risk stems from assumptions made about the size of transaction costs and complements the notion of parameter risk analyzed in previous literature. As a result, the model itself might be a possible channel for fair value management.     

经理人股票期权会计问题研究

近年来,经理人股票期权激励机制在我国开始实施,如何在借鉴国外已有的先进经验的基础上,根据我国现有国情和“本土化”的股票期权计划的发展程度构建的我国股票期权会计制度就成为迫切需要解决的课题。本文认为我国经理人股票期权应当费用化确认,同时采用服务单位法在经理人提供服务期间进行摊销;选择公允价值为计量基础,行权日为计量日;采用公允价值法计算考虑经理人股票期权稀释效用后的每股收益并进行充分的信息披露。     

An Experiment in Fair Value Accounting: UK Investment Vehicles

Abstract

We use the British real estate and investment fund industries as experimental settings where historic cost (HC) and fair value accounting (FVA) can be compared. Both industries have the majority of their assets marked to market and hence the difference between the two accounting systems is profound. However, as the valuation of real estate is arguably more subjective than that of investment funds, we are able to contrast fair value accounting in a near ideal setting with one where it remains important, but where valuation difficulties may permit bias. As this distinction is incorporated in the recently issued SFAS 157, which also formed the basis of the IASB's relevant discussion document, the results of our study may be particularly timely. As expected, we find that fair value income is considerably more value relevant than historic cost income. However, in the presence of changes in FVA balance sheet values, income measures become largely irrelevant. This implies that there is no obvious advantage from adopting FVA income accounting if FVA balance sheet values are available to the user. Furthermore, FVA for our real estate sample is considerably less value relevant than for the investment companies and the evidence for this sample, if not conclusive, is consistent with earnings management. We interpret these results as confirming that fair values are highly relevant and largely unbiased where the values are unambiguous. Where valuation is ambiguous, which will normally be the case, value relevance will be lower and biased accounting may be revealed.     

Pricing perpetual options with stochastic discount interest rates

The aim of this study is to investigate the prices and optimal exercise strategies of certain perpetual American options on the asset under stochastic discount interest model. This is different from Gerber and Shiu (N Am Actuar J 2(3):101–112, 1998), in which the interest force was a constant; here we suppose that the accumulated interest function is perturbed by the standard Brownian motion and Poisson process. We obtain an explicit expression of optimal option-exercise boundary in the case of perpetual put option. Moreover, we get a corresponding result when the individual claim is described by an exponential distribution. Finally, we analyze the influence of certain coefficients in stochastic interest model on the optimal option-exercise boundary.     

公允价值失真的经济学分析及其治理

当前的公允价值俨然成为一个基于市场参数和主观判断的估计价格。因而,市场的无效、人的有限理性和机会主义行为都会导致所估计的公允价值在事实上并不"公允",从而产生了公允价值的基础性失真、行为性失真和违规性失真。针对公允价值失真的不同类型,应采取不同的分类治理模式。     

新时代大学生就业核心竞争力培育路径研究

大学生就业问题是目前社会各界关注的热点,如何有效提升大学生就业核心竞争力显得至关重要。论文剖析大学生就业核心竞争力内涵及结构,分析大学生就业核心竞争力的主观因素、客观因素,从培养方案、职业道德、专业知识、就业指导等方面探索提升大学生就业核心竞争力的途径。     

Stock Options and Firm Performance: New Evidence from the French Market

This study investigates the effect of stock option‐based compensation on the short‐term and long‐term performance of French companies. To the best of our knowledge, we provide the first empirical evidence describing the market reaction following initiations and renewals of Employee Stock Option (ESO) plans in France. We find that the French market reacts positively to initiations of ESO plans but does not consider their renewal as relevant information. Our results on the long‐term effect of ESO plans suggest that neither the size nor the value of the grants affect the firm's accounting and market performance. Similarly, corporate performance prior to the grant has no explanatory power of the size or value of the grant. This implies that, over our sample period, the relationship between option‐based compensation and corporate performance in France was inexistent, regardless of the direction considered.     

公允价值计量的里程碑

美国FASB于2006年9月发布的SFAS157《公允价值计量》通过定义公允价值、建立公允价值计量的梯度框架、扩展关于公允价值计量的披露来规范和简化公会计原则中关于公允价值计量的指南，成为公允值计量的一块里程碑。本文意在通过对SFAS157主要内容的评价使我们把握公允价值计量的本质，从而在理论研究和会计准则制定方面更好的实行“拿来主义”。     

The effects of employee stock ownership on stock liquidity: Evidence from the Korean market

This study investigates the relationship between the level of employee stock ownership (ESO) and stock liquidity. Using Korean ESO data, we find that ESO is positively associated with various liquidity measures. Stock-owning employees tend to mitigate information asymmetry to increase their benefits from the transparent market. We also find stronger effects when the firm is not an affiliate of a chaebol family group, and is less monitored by financial analysts, foreign investors, and outside directors. Furthermore, we employ various robustness tests to mitigate potential endogeneity concerns.     

高校家庭经济困难学生模糊综合认定模型研究

家庭经济困难学生认定是高校学生资助工作的前提和难点,客观准确的认定是资助工作的关键。当前高校家庭经济困难学生认定缺乏科学的认定指标,受主观因素影响较大,影响了认定的准确性。应用层次分析法和模糊综合评价理论,建立相应的指标体系和数学模型,采用量化测评方法可使认定结果更加客观公正。     

Environmental sustainability orientation and performance of family and nonfamily firms

Despite the growing research evidence on the effect of environmental sustainability orientation (ESO) on firm outcomes, contingent factors that may influence the strength of this relationship have received little scholarly attention. In this study, we use insights from the literature on ESO and family business to introduce family status and firm age as moderators in the ESO‐performance linkage. Using time‐lagged data from 253 small and medium‐sized enterprises in Ghana, we found the impact of ESO on firm performance is amplified for nonfamily firms but not significant for family firms. Our evidence suggests it is stronger among older firms than younger ones. Implications and directions for future research are discussed.     

浅析金融危机视角下公允价值会计原则

在美国次贷危机引发的金融危机中公允价值的运用再次遭受质疑,在此背景下,文章首先论证了公允价值的含义及其公允价值计量属性的优劣势分析,通过分析我们得出应该正确看待公允价值与金融危机的关系,最后指出在我国运用公允价值的一些完善措施。     

Fairness in Delegated Bargaining

This article examines whether a principal prefers to hire a fair or a selfish agent. A fair agent cares to some extent for the well-being of other people and thus he also cares for the principal. Therefore, if the agent performs individual work, the principal is always better off to hire a fair agent. However, we show that when a third party with conflicting interests is introduced, it may be advantageous for the principal to hire a selfish agent. The reason is that the selfish agent will be a tough bargainer not only when negotiating his employment contract with the principal but also when dealing with the third party, for example, when selling the principal's product to a buyer.     

公允价值会计:以历史和环境为视角的研究

本文通过对公允价值会计演进历史的回顾,及对公允价值会计适用的经济环境的分析,说明公允价值计量属性和经济的虚拟性有着密切关系,同时履行中合约的会计处理,也促使人们采用公允价值这一计量属性。笔者认为会计准则建设中适时的体现会计计量的公允性,不仅对整个财务会计系统建构有着重要意义,而且也充分体现了会计中的“真实和公允”的原则。