Negotiation Support and E-negotiation Systems: An Overview

With negotiation being an often difficult process involving complex problems, computer-based support has been employed in its various phases and tasks. This article provides a historical overview of software used to support negotiations, aid negotiators, and automate one or more negotiation activities. First, it presents several system classifications, including implemented models, system architectures, and configurations of various systems interacting with human negotiators. Then, it focuses on NSSs (negotiation support systems) and related systems introduced in the early 1980s and on ENSs (e-negotiation systems), which are deployed on the web. These broad categories are discussed from four perspectives: real-life applications, systems used in research and training, research results, and research frameworks.     

Cross-Cultural Methodological Issues in Ethical Research

Despite the fundamental and administrative difficulties associated with cross-cultural research the rewards are significant and, given an increasing trend toward globalisation, the move away from singular location studies to more comparative research is to be encouraged. In order to facilitate this research process it is imperative, however, that considerable attention is given to the methodological issues that can beset cross-cultural research, specifically as these issues relate to the primary domain or discipline of investigation, which in this instance is research on business ethics. Utilising the experience of a four country comparative study of both Asian and Western cultures in the field of business ethics, the following presents a discussion of methodological concerns under the three broad areas of operationalising culture, operationalising business ethics, and data interpretation.     

Teaching Real-World Political Economy: Simulating a WTO Negotiation

International educational experiences can provide benefits for faculty members as well as higher education institutions and their students. The opportunity to lecture and conduct research with colleagues at universities in other countries can foster the globalization or internationalization of academic teaching, the advancement of knowledge, and cooperation among institutions. Research has shown that the experience abroad helps educators to gain a more global perspective that will enhance business classes. This article will show that a Fulbright experience abroad helps faculty to lead business students to be more knowledgeable and aware of international issues and global concerns.     

A Negotiation Model for Inducing Higher Service in a Distribution Channel

This paper analyzes, in the context of negotiation, the problem of coordination and conflict resolution between the manufacturer (Seller) and the retailers (Buyers) for a two-tier inventory system. The retailers capture demand (from customers) and therefore are responsible for the level of service offered by the system. The larger the inventory that a retailer has of a particular product, the lower the probability of running out of stock and therefore, avoid the possibility of a lost sale for the manufacturer. A conflict arises (and therefore the negotiation process starts) when the manufacturer wants the retailer to increase the level of service while retailers are satisfied with the status quo. Using the Nash bargaining solution, we develop a theoretical framework that incorporates behavioral dimensions and predicts the outcome of “sharing” the profit. The results indicate the advantage of developing long term relationships among the members of the distribution channel to minimize the uncertainty and therefore the source of conflict.     

Negotiation beliefs: Comparing Americans and the Chinese

We address the micro foundations of international business research by examining negotiation beliefs as a parsimonious guide for international business negotiators. We conceptualise the construct of ‘negotiation beliefs’ as a negotiator’s cognition about the nature of negotiation and effective negotiation strategies. We integrate the negotiation literature and empirically investigate the differences and similarities in the negotiation beliefs of Americans and the Chinese. Across two studies, we conduct a conceptual analysis of negotiation beliefs and develop measures for the culturally similar and culturally different factors of the negotiation beliefs of Chinese and American negotiators. We find that negotiation beliefs can predict negotiation outcomes. Our findings indicate that Americans and the Chinese share negotiation beliefs about cooperation and competition. They also understand negotiation using culturally different factors, namely hierarchy and relationship for the Chinese and economic interest and confrontation for the Americans. We further discuss the theoretical and practical implications for international negotiations, particularly regarding disputes between the US and China.     

Methodological Issues in Cross-Linguistic and Multilingual Advertising Research

This article discusses methodological issues related to language in advertising research. We introduce a framework that distinguishes between cross-linguistic research settings, where several languages are used in the study and different samples of respondents are studied in their own language, and multilingual research settings, where only a single language is used and multilingual respondents are studied either in their native or nonnative language. We review key principles that govern cross-linguistic and multilingual effects in advertising research to formulate guidelines for research design and data analysis. In the cross-linguistic context, these principles address nonuniform cross-linguistic differences in responses (related to nonequivalence of individual questionnaire items) versus uniform response effects (related to nonequivalence of verbal response category labels). In the multilingual context, we bring together evidence that shows how—even when comprehension is not a problem—stimuli, questions, and response categories may be processed differently in respondents' native versus nonnative language.     

Methodological Choices in Relationship Quality (RQ) Research 1987 to 2015: A Systematic Literature Review

Different methodological choices (i.e., data collection method, sample size, sample characteristics, and analytical instrument) in 122 relationship quality (RQ) peer-reviewed articles published in accredited academic journals between 1987 and 2015 are reviewed. The results revealed that RQ researchers need to look into other relationship types in which businesses/organizations engage in order to survive, as existing studies have been limited to interpersonal relationships (i.e., relationships between individuals), business to business relationships (B2B), business to customer relationships (B2C), and customer to business relationships (C2B). Also, the results show that too much attention has been given to the quantitative method of data collection, as only a small number of researchers in this field utilize the qualitative method. Furthermore, the sample choice and size identified in existing studies are somewhat constrained to the method of data collection employed. Researchers should be more transparent in providing detailed information on their methodological choices and the rationale for those choices.     

Conducting Dyadic Multiple Issue Negotiation Experiments: Methodological Recommendations

We take a critical, yet constructive look at the literature that focuses on multiple issue negotiation experiments. Our purpose is to offer suggestions for improvement when conducting such experiments. We focus on experiments, which are conducted using an externally imposed value point structure for the negotiators across issues together with background context information. Negotiator performance in such experiments is generally poor in the sense that Pareto inferior settlements are typically generated. A possible explanation is that negotiators sometimes follow the externally imposed value points and sometimes their own values pertaining to the context. Hence we conclude that it would be better if multiple issue negotiation experiments would not be based on an apriori given value point structure - unless we have compelling reasons for it - particularly if no agents are used. The common argument against doing this is that we cannot then identify Pareto optimal or Pareto preferred settlements for the subjects. Recent research integrating the fields of Multiple Criteria Decision Making (MCDM) together with negotiation analysis, however, provides a possible solution to this problem. An experiment conducted by the authors is used to illustrate our methodological recommendations.     

Methodological Issues in Advertising Research: Current Status,Shifts, and Trends

This article presents some self-reflective considerations on the methodology applied in advertising scholarly publications, based on a review of articles in four leading journals: Journal of Advertising, Journal of Advertising Research, International Journal of Advertising, and Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising. This article first identifies two approaches in the positivist paradigm that exert strong impacts on the development of advertising research: the message effects research tradition in the communication field and the consumer psychology research tradition in marketing. With this background, the article next introduces several research questions to explore which methods have dominated advertising research, the role of theory building in affecting the adopted methods and the number of reported studies, differences across the journals, and the degree to which researchers integrate different methods or approaches (quantitative and qualitative) in their research. A content analysis of articles published in these four advertising journals from 2001 to 2015 helps address these research questions and reveals the current status, shifts, and trends in advertising research since the turn of this century.     

Clinical Assessment Methods in Negotiation Research: The Study of Narcissism and Negotiator Effectiveness

Field studies suggest that individual differences are strong determinants negotiator effectiveness, but their impact has yet to be adequately documented (Thompson 1990). We argue that the lack of empirical confirmation is attributable to methodological limitations of the dominant paradigm. This paper shows the usefulness of psychodynamically-oriented constructs and clinical assessment methods. The study contrasts the negotiation experience of individuals high and low in narcissistic functioning, a core psychodynamic variable, and the deep-seated character trait that underlies the interpersonal orientation construct. Implications of this approach for the design of personality assessment and negotiation research are explored.     

Emotion as an Argumentation Engine: Modeling the Role of Emotion in Negotiation

The purpose of this paper is to present a model of emotion in negotiation, which reflects the active role emotions play in decision taking as modifiers of theory-of-mind models, goals and strategies. The model is based on empirical studies of human interaction in different activities such as plea bargains, simulated negotiations, doctor patient consultations, and virtual human–human interactions. We use empathy as an example of emotion, which has a natural and powerful function in the shaping and re-contextualization of decision processes. We study also the linguistic realization of emotions as forms of argumentation in authentic discourse.     

Applying Clinical Methods for Assessing Patterns of Functioning in Negotiation Processes: The Rorschach Reality-Fantasy Scale (RFS)

This clinical paper suggests applying a new Rorschach measure, the Reality-Fantasy Scale (RFS; Tibon et al. 2005, Int J Appl Psychoanal Stud 2:40–57) for evaluating patterns of functioning in negotiation processes. The RFS is a psychoanalytically oriented diagnostic tool, designed to operationalize Winnicott’s (Playing and reality. Basic Books, New York, 1971) construct of potential or transitional space by using a paradigm that conceptualizes the Rorschach task as inviting the respondent to enter the intermediate transitional space between inner and outer reality. The RFS ranges from  − 5, representing extreme reliance on fantasy (reality collapse) to  + 5 representing extreme reliance on reality (fantasy collapse). A score approximating zero indicates adaptive and functional use of potential space, pointing out high level of negotiator effectiveness. A case example is presented, demonstrating the utility of the RFS in evaluating negotiator effectiveness in an encounter aimed at achieving peace agreement. Although not itself a report of a lab or field experiment the paper illustrates the potential usefulness of psychoanalytically oriented conceptualization and clinical assessment methods in negotiation research and practice.     

自由贸易区农产品谈判策略之比较研究——以奶制品为例

以奶制品为例,选择澳大利亚、新西兰等主要的奶制品生产国和贸易国,通过分析自由贸易协定中有关奶制品的规定,深入研究具有生产优势的国家、高补贴国家和发展中国家三种不同类型国家在自由贸易区农产品谈判中所采取的谈判策略,以期对我国的自由贸易区谈判提供借鉴。     

Relational Capital: Strategic Advantage for Small and Medium-Size Enterprises (SMEs) Through Negotiation and Collaboration

Collaborative entrepreneurship research suggests that organizations will soon pursue more collaborative relationships throughout a worldwide network of firms, driving a strategy of continuous innovation, specially small- and medium-size firms (SMEs). Tapping into a body of literature that focuses on the importance of human capital in driving long-term success, we merge ideas of collaborative research with a growing body of work on human capital or human resource management in SMEs. Our paper states that it is not the human, per se, that is the real asset but the relationships those humans have that are the most inimitable and important capital. We will discuss how companies use relational capital as the basis for collaborative entrepreneurship. Consistent with our hypotheses, our exploratory study suggests that smaller firms place more value on relational capital than do larger firms. We also have some indication that the key capital that differentiates low vs. high performance, regardless of firm size, is the relational capital aspect. To sum up, relational capital is a fundamental asset for firms, but especially for SMEs, and high performing companies are those that are able to negotiate with others and develop collaborative agreements, thus placing a high value in relational capital.     

创新流通产业理论问题的研究

西方漫长的贸易实践中有许多贸易思想产生,但始终未能形成系统的商学理论,本文分析了西方经济理论在生产与流通关系上的两次理论反复与4个阶段,以及忽视流通的原因,提出用流通主体结构、客体结构、对象结构、功能结构、系统结构、社会结构、比较结构7个分析框架创新流通理论内容,从改变基础理论单一化、明确研究对象、统一商学理论规范等10个方面改变传统的流通分析方法,实现流通产业理论方法的创新。总的来说,流通产业经济学需要汲取新制度经济学、新兴古典经济学、空间经济学等多学科的研究成果,实现创新和发展。     

Computer-Assisted International Negotiation: A Tool for Research and Practice

This article describes a web-based computer-assisted tool for diagnosing progress in international negotiation. Following a discussion of the need for such a tool, we provide the research sources for its development, present the model on which it is based, describe how it works, and present the results of attempts to validate its diagnoses with case materials. Focusing on flexibility in negotiation, the program consists of questions divided into five categories: issues, parties, delegations, situation, and process. The questions track to variables shown in published studies to influence flexibility. Answers to the questions are processed according to algorithms that include weights derived from the results of a statistical meta-analysis of bargaining studies. An example of the question-answer format and computations leading to the diagnoses are provided. A help function that provides advice for resolving impasses is also described. Strong correspondences between diagnoses generated by the program and actual outcomes obtained in a number of cases attest to the validity of the approach. The article concludes with ideas for further development stimulated by the web-based version of the program.     

Computer-Aided Tools in Negotiation: Negotiable Issues,Counterfactual Thinking,and Satisfaction

Negotiations research has identified both economic and social-psychological outcomes are important for negotiations. Despite the economic advantages of having multiple issues to negotiate, inconsistencies exist between objective economic outcomes and negotiator satisfaction. Although having more negotiable issues yields better objective payoffs, it can result in more thoughts about different possible outcomes. Such counterfactual thoughts about different outcomes can reduce overall satisfaction due to increased cognitive complexity and thoughts about different outcomes. In this study, we explore how information technology can influence negotiator satisfaction and better manage counterfactual thoughts and post-negotiation satisfaction. Results support the prediction that having a computer aid to better manage cognitively complex issues, even a relatively simple one, reduces participants’ counterfactual thoughts about better possible outcomes. As a result, the use of some type of technology—even a simple technology such as a spreadsheet—may improve overall negotiator satisfaction, while maintaining desirable economic outcomes.     

A Formal Basis for Negotiation Support System Research

A high-level theoretical model of negotiation activity is introduced as a foundation for guiding future research and development in the area of negotiation support literature. A formal model at this level is presently absent from the negotiation support systems. The model is formally expressed in terms of definitions and postulates that describe eight important negotiation parameters. Relationships between the model and research in game theory, social behavior science, and decision support systems fields are examined.