土地立体利用与三维地籍

人口和产业在城市的集聚导致城市人地矛盾日趋紧张,为了集约和节约用地,土地利用的立体化趋势越来越明显.这使得人们对土地的理解也从二维变为三维,土地三维权利和建筑物区分所有制度也逐步确立.不同的产权单元在空间上叠加,抽象的产权束在空间上的表现形态为复杂的产权簇或产权层.但传统的地籍是以地表权利为核心的,不能满足实际需求,有必要建立三维地籍.从各国的实践经验看,三维地籍的主要问题是现行法律对三维产权规定的缺位以及一些技术问题.随着我国不动产空间权利设定的进程,三维地籍的建设要从法律和技术两方面人手,逐步过渡到完全的三维形式,以满足国家(政府)层面和普通层面的需求.     

利用城镇地籍数据快速构建城市三维模型的方法

研究目的:利用2DGIS中城镇地籍数据信息快速建立城市三维模型。研究方法:首先对城镇大比例数据进行归类,提取适合三维建模的点、线、面要素,然后对要素进行重新组织,利用ArcScene,依据三维表达的要求,对地形背景建立DEM并与DOM叠加处理,界址点、控制点等点状地物建立三维独立地物符号库,一般建筑物按高度进行拉伸,而对标志性建筑物采用三维建模软件按二维轮廓进行精细模型制作。研究结果:成功地对某市大比例尺城镇地籍数据进行三维可视城市三维模型构建。研究结论:利用2DGIS中城镇地籍数据信息建立城市三维模型方法可行有效,有利于推进三维地籍的发展。     

如何在GIS技术下建立地籍管理信息系统--以河北省任县地区地籍管理信息系统的建立为例

地籍管理工作是土地管理的重要组成部分。我国的地籍管理比较落后,已阻碍了土地管理工作的发展。探讨如何在GIS技术下建立地籍管理信息系统及具体步骤、技术方法等一些实际应用的问题,将新技术引入土地管理中势在必行。     

地籍效益的研究

在阐述了地籍效益研究的意义,给出地籍、地籍信息、成本和效益等基本慨念的定义后．结合实例以定性和定量相结合的方法对地籍的效益做出了初步探讨。     

地籍信息系统中拓扑关系的建立及地籍变更信息处理方法

论述了地籍信息系统中利用宗地构成信息和界址点坐标数据库建立宗地图和地籍图中拓扑关系的方法和应用中应注意的问题,探讨了地籍变更过程中图形变更和属性变更的处理方法。     

地籍学演进及其理论体系框架研究

研究目的:研究地籍学的演进逻辑、理论体系和内容体系,完善地籍学科体系。研究方法:通过梳理、归纳已有地籍学研究文献,研究分析地籍学的发生、发展进程,揭示地籍学的演进逻辑,构建地籍学的理论体系和内容体系。研究结果:地籍学源于调整并规范人与地及其之上的人与人开展土地利用活动关系的土地利用初始秩序,尔后沿着地籍制度形成、地籍理论提出、地籍学科形成、地籍学科完善的时空轨迹发展递进而成。研究结论:(1)地籍源于人类初始调整并规范人与地及其之上的人与人开展土地利用活动关系的秩序需要,起步于采用国家意志建立租税制度并规范土地利用秩序,发展于人地关系的演变和技术进步,完善成熟于社会可持续发展观念的形成与实践,但是地籍学真正形成于21世纪初。(2)地籍学是一门集社会科学、自然科学和技术科学于一身的综合性交叉科学。(3)地籍学的理论体系框架,由地籍学范式所规范和决定,其核心内容是地籍管理;主要支撑技术是地籍测量(调查);核心理论是土地权籍理论,由实现"人—地—权"三位一体理论的地籍确权理论和表达人地关系权籍时空系统理论的地籍时空理论组成;研究内容体系包括学科基础、地籍制度和地籍措施三个部分。(4)地籍学未来研究的方向主要包括有关土地权籍理论的细化与深化、土地(不动产)权籍的确认与调处、3R(权利、责任、限制)不动产登记制度、地籍信息应用的途径和方法、地籍信息"筒仓"问题等。     

倾听地籍声音

编者按:在漫长的历史沿革中,地籍,这一维护国家机器运行的工具,从无到有,其地位不断地发生着变化:唐代中叶实行两税法前,地籍依附在户籍中;唐代中叶至明代中叶,地籍与户籍处于平等地位;明代中叶后,地籍地位高升于户籍之上。不管历史如何变迁,地籍前进的脚步从未停滞。进入十二五,在对土地权利的重视与保护上升到前所未有高度的今天,时代对地籍     

土地产权三维界定的技术路线及其评论

研究目的：对已有研究文献涉及土地产权三维界定的技术路线进行结构性把握,梳理研究脉络与趋势,以期为土地产权三维界定在研究方法和范式上的改进提供思路。研究方法：文献分析法、比较分析法。研究结果：从理论基础、界定起点和界定方案看,国内外学界对土地产权三维界定大致存在三条技术路线：基于空间分离原理的技术路线、基于空间区分原理的技术路线和基于三维地籍原理的技术路线,分别反映了法学和地籍学对土地产权形态和产权客体进行三维界定的技术方案。研究结论：未来应将土地产权形态与产权客体三维界定统一起来,厘清其内在逻辑与生成路径,深化三维土地产权客体特定化实现机制、国家公权力植入三维土地产权实现机制和三维土地产权排他性支配机制研究,加快构建三维土地产权范式。     

建立城市地籍信息系统的若干问题的再认识

针对建立地籍信息系统中的一些主要技术问题进行了探讨，提出了作者的看法，其中着重讨论了城市地籍信息系统应具有的功能、构成形式、数据模型及其工程的实施方法。     

全球定位系统与地籍测量之我见

提要本文分别论述全球定位系统在地籍控制测量、地籍图测绘、土地利用变更调查和动态监测中的应用以及新的GPS定位技术在地籍测绘中的应用与展望。     

三维地籍形态分析与数据表达

研究目的：建立三维地籍模型,描述三维地籍产权体并兼容二维地籍宗地,实现不同维度土地权属的统一管理和登记。研究方法：结合中国城市发展的实例和地籍管理需求,分析三维地籍基本形态,比较各类三维空间数据模型。研究结果：提出适应三维地籍管理功能需求的三维地籍空间数据模型及其相应的数据自动组织方法和思路。研究结论：三维地籍通过地理空间坐标这个“基因”来管理不动产,为土地和房产的统一登记提供了统一的技术框架,是对现行不动产管理技术的升级和超越。     

Initial 3D cadastre registration by cadastral resurvey in the Republic of Croatia

2D Land cadastre on the present territory of the Republic of Croatia has been continuously developed in the last 200 years. Throughout the years, survey methods, needs and purposes of cadastre have changed. This resulted in a variety of cadastral data with different accuracy and completeness. Today, we can collect an enormous amount of data and the need for cadastral data has never been greater. We need to find feasible solutions to make the initial acquisition of 3D cadastral data which would satisfy the needs of stakeholders involved in Land Administration System (LAS).This paper will present a historical background of the cadastral data acquisition which would help to understand circumstances on how this variety of available cadastral data has been produced and the data available nowadays. Based on the historical overview and the overview of the current state, we will upgrade the data model of a LAS used in Croatia to support the implementation of a 3D cadastre. The model will include its static components but also proposed improvements of cadastral resurvey related processes. The Land Administration Domain Model (LADM), which in 2012 became the ISO 19,152 standard, will be used as the formal basis.This paper offers a proposal for cadastral resurvey improvements, better registration of public rights and registration of separate parts of real properties. It will identify and explore critical points and make recommendations to bring Real Property Cadastre closer to a real 3D register.     

A technical solution for 3D crowdsourced cadastral surveys

The development of 3D property registration systems is indispensable for the spatial determination of property Rights, Restrictions and Responsibilities (RRR), the sustainable operation of property markets and the safeguarding of ownership in the highly urbanized world. Several developments in computer graphics, 3D modelling and rendering techniques have attracted the growing global interest in 3D cadastre. Since 2012, the Land Administration Domain Model (LADM ISO 19152) is adopted as the international standard for 2D and 3D cadastral data modelling. Developed legal procedures and prototype systems for 3D property rights registration provide interesting solutions for data acquisition and visualization but such approaches are time and cost demanding. In parallel, 2D cadastral surveying procedures have progressed significantly in reducing required time and cost, utilizing crowdsourcing methodology and mobile services.This paper presents a technical solution under development, aiming to provide the beginning for a new era in the initial acquisition, registration and representation of 3D crowdsourced cadastral data, appropriate for both the developed and the developing world. The proposed solution consists of two complementary parts, the technical framework and the crowdsourced methodology to be followed. The technical framework consists of two interconnected parts, the server-side and the client-side. The server-side refers to the Database Management System (DBMS) where the collected data are stored. The client-side refers to the data capturing tool, which in this case is the mobile device. For the server-side, a prototype system based on model driven architecture practices and LADM is developed; while for the client-side, an open-source mobile application for the acquisition of 3D crowdsourced cadastral data, 3D modelling and visualization of 3D property units as block models (LoD1) on a mobile’s phone screen in real-time, is developed.This research is focused on investigating technical aspects for capturing and integrating data about legal rights on physical objects. Detailed investigation of legal issues is not within the objectives of this research. Two case-studies for testing the proposed technical solution are made. An assessment of the current stage of development of the technical solution is presented. The main conclusions converge that the proposed technical solution has huge potentials for the fast, economic implementation of 3D cadastral surveys as it can produce an accurate and reliable 3D information model, depending on the accuracy of the available basemaps. The developed application is easy-to-use as users may not have the necessary level of 3D modelling skills in order to contribute to the registration procedure.     

Assessing the environmental impact of 3D public law restrictions

The needs of modern societies require, on the one hand, the most efficient exploitation of land by individual stakeholders and, on the other hand, have set up a variety of restrictions and regulations for the public benefit. Such restrictions are steadily growing in number and apply in various areas. Given the technological development in the construction sector, complex proprietary relations emerge in overlapping private and public rights. Cadastres constitute the core of land administration systems, gradually evolving to development tools that provide multi-purpose land related information. Within this context, incorporation of Public Law Restrictions (PLRs) to cadastral systems is considered a step towards the development of integrated land administration systems. Internationally, PLRs are usually registered in separate registries, under different types and formats, depending on the competent body/authority. These PLRs include, among others, restrictions regarding environment and nature protection, water protection, spatial and land use planning zones, cultural heritage, public infrastructure corridors and zones, public easements/servitudes and mining rights. Until today 3D registration and visualisation of such PLRs is mostly discussed at research level, mainly due to the variety of fields related to each PLR, the need of quantifying qualitative components or “translating” physical attributes to legal restrictions and 3D volumes, as well as to the variety of responsible authorities and types of regulations. This paper focuses on identifying PLRs that pertain either explicit or implicit 3D characteristics, emphasising on the PLRs related to the development of the Trans Adriatic Pipeline (TAP) project. This paper aims to identify the nature of 3D PLRs, based on the legal requirements regarding environmental components’ analysis and mapping defined in Environmental Impact Assessment (ESIA) studies, and to investigate the possibility of compiling 3D environmental models from recorded ESIA data. Economic implications of 3D PLR approach is also considered, at qualitative level, in terms of impact on land value when 3D restrictions are imposed, and regarding the cost-effectiveness of drafting ESIA studies showing 3D PLRs.     

Cadastral data as a source for 3D indoor modelling

Despite the rapid development of indoor spatial data acquisition technology, there are currently no solutions that enable large-scale indoor spatial data acquisition due to several limiting factors that characterize the indoor space. This fact, together with the rapidly growing need for indoor models, is the main motivation for our research. The focus is on the study of the appropriateness of existing cadastral data for 3D indoor modelling. Within the study, a framework for 3D indoor modelling has been developed, comprising a chain of processes, starting from initial cadastral data and ending with the OGC IndoorGML compliant document. The process chain is divided into three parts, which are described individually and supported by UML activity diagrams. The Slovenian Building Cadastre data represents the basis for the framework design and data assessment. The IndoorGML standard is used for final outputs, as it provides a standardized data model for the representation and exchange of indoor spatial information designed for indoor navigation and location-based services. The data storage options using a spatially enabled database are presented for storing 2D and 3D geometries. The stored data enables fully automatic IndoorGML document generation on request, while also taking advantage of all spatial database functionalities. The proposed approach is software independent and can be implemented with various spatially enabled software packages. In addition to 3D indoor data modelling, the framework represents a comprehensive method for assessing the usability of input data for the purpose of 3D indoor modelling. The assessment is done for the case of the Slovenian Building Cadastre. The assessment of the cadastral data suitability for 3D indoor modelling can be used for decisions regarding future steps towards a multi-purpose 3D real property cadastre. The presented concept can be applied in many countries worldwide that have a similar condominium registration system.     

Layer approach to ownership in 3D cadastre in the case of underground tunnels

The paper focuses on approaches to the registration of real property rights in the case of underground or subway tunnels in different EU countries: Austria, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, Croatia, Greece, Poland, Slovenia, and Sweden. The authors conducted analysis on the registration of rights to subway tunnels in the chosen countries, including its effectiveness in ensuring appropriate property rights to construct and exploit tunnels. Special attention was given to limitations related to the lack of legal provisions vertically dividing space, i.e. into layers, and referring to the ownership right to the layers. Benefits which might be achieved by the introduction of a 3D real property subdivision were pointed out. The analysis of the available data concerning the geometry of subway tunnels in particular countries was presented. The authors tried to answer the question whether the accessible data concerning the geometry of subway tunnels allows to generate a 3D geospatial model of a constructed object, and to specify the space which should be determined as a 3D parcel in the 3D real property cadastre, for the purpose of registering property rights for the object (the tunnel).     

3D cadastres for densely occupied informal situations: Necessity and possibility

Much of 3D cadastre research and development targets high valued urban land, including condominiums, apartment buildings, and office complexes. The value of the land and the economic activity generated from transactions in this urban space potentially support the cost and time spent on establishing and maintaining a 3D cadastre. Methods for data acquisition and for construction and maintenance of the 3D cadastre are also simpler in the regular and formally planned and surveyed structures of the high value urban environment. Low-income, urban areas of informal tenure and informal development, however, also need and can benefit from a land administration system supported by a 3D cadastre but are neglected in the 3D cadastre research. Mechanisms are required for quick and cost effective construction of a 3D cadastre in this type of area to support land management and regularisation procedures, and to provide security of tenure. Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is one technology that may be examined to differentiate structures in densely occupied environments where limited information and limited resources must be able to be used for managing the land and also protecting informal rights.This paper initially posits the need for 3D cadastres in low-income but densely structured urban settlements. It then tests the ability of an existing LiDAR dataset together with orthoimagery, derived to be low cost so therefore having limited specifications, for capturing sufficient definition of 3D occupation in the low-income, densely structured case study area of Laventille in Trinidad and Tobago.The difficulties of manually or automatically discriminating between close and overlapping structures and boundaries are highlighted and it is found that there is still a need for adjudication and verification of boundaries on the ground, even when physical features can be discerned from the software.