Green Demarketing in Advertisements: Comparing “Buy Green” and “Buy Less” Appeals in Product and Institutional Advertising Contexts

This research compares consumer response to traditional green advertising appeals to that of less conventional, “green demarketing” (GD) appeals—messages by for-profit companies encouraging reduced category consumption for the sake of the environment. Rather than encouraging greener consumption, modern environmentalism calls for decreased consumption overall, a trend reflected in recent advertising campaigns (e.g., Patagonia's “Don't Buy This Jacket”). Despite its potential impact and unconventionality, research on GD in general is sparse, and no empirical research has examined consumer response to GD appeals relative to traditional green appeals. In three experiments, we find that, in the context of product advertising, consumers' attitudes for green ads are more favorable than those for GD ads, mediated by greater inferences of genuine environmental concern. However, we find the reverse pattern in the context of institutional ads. Further, an “anti-consumption amplifier” message embedded in the ad—espousing the potential harm of overconsumption—further boosts favorable consumer attitudes for the GD institutional ad relative to its traditional green counterpart. Importantly, we assess all effects while controlling for consumers' individual levels of green consumerism, such that implications may be applied more generally rather than to a specific segment of green consumers.     

How can the word “NEW” evoke consumers' experiences of novelty and interest?

This paper examines the role advertising cues play in inducing subjective perceptions of product novelty and how they can evoke consumer interest toward an advertisement. Specifically, it uses behavioral and psychophysiological measures to: (1) investigate the effect of novelty cues on consumers’ subjective appraisal of novelty; (2) demonstrate that novelty cues may evoke the emotion of interest; and (3) differentiate the effect of the emotion of interest on liking and arousal. Across two experimental studies, we demonstrated that simply adding the word “new” in an advertisement increases behavioral (i.e., viewing duration) and psychophysiological responses (i.e., cardiac activity) of interest. However, the word “new” did not evoke liking and arousal. This suggests that novelty cues in an advertisement will make the consumers perceive the product to be novel and further evoke consumer interest.     

Account Planners' Views on How Their Work Is and Should Be Evaluated

Abstract

The purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of green advertising, thus demonstrating that the concept is far more complex than the extant marketing literature suggests. Green is characterized here as a two dimensional concept with political (reformism to radicalism) and human positional (anthropocentric to ecocentric) dimensions. It is argued here that there are at least five different types of green, including environmentalism, conservationism, human welfare ecology, preservationism, and ecologism. To understand the greenness of an advertisement, it is useful to position it within this framework; and each type suggests a different human position with respect to nature and a different political orientation. The proposed framework is useful for defining terms such as “green,” “environmental,” and “ecological” which are often used interchangeably in the marketing and advertising literature.     

The Skeptical Green Consumer Revisited: Testing the Relationship Between Green Consumerism and Skepticism Toward Advertising

This article revisits the widely believed notion of the skeptical green consumer, in other words, that green consumers tend to distrust green advertising. Study 1, a survey of U.S. consumers, found no positive relationship between green consumerism and general ad skepticism. However, green consumerism was negatively related to green advertising skepticism. Study 2, a survey of Austrian consumers, addressed the underlying mechanism of this negative relationship in a mediation analysis. It was shown that green consumers saw more informational utility in green ads than nongreen consumers did. This, in turn, decreased their green advertising skepticism. The emotional appeal of green ads, however, had no impact on green advertising skepticism. Findings suggest that the “dilemma for marketers who desire to target the green consumer” (Zinkhan and Carlson 1995, p. 5) is far less serious than previously thought.     

Advertising the U.S. National Organic Standard: A Well-Intentioned Cue Lost in the Shuffle?

The 2002 implementation of the National Organic standard and development of the USDA organic seal gave food advertisers a new tool with which to communicate food characteristics to consumers. Based principally on farm and manufacturing practices, the standard offers consumers an expansion of their food choices. Parents of young children have been shown to have particular interest in organic food. Using parent-targeted magazine-based food ads, this paper explores how organic has been promoted, how its advertising strategy compares to that for conventional foods, and whether organic food has been appropriately differentiated from conventional foods such that the USDA organic seal carries a significant and unique meaning to both consumers and the food industry. The content analysis shows that the period following the implementation of the National Organic Program exhibits a general upward trend in usage of health-related cues but minimal increase in use of terms associated with the “organic” ideal. A direct comparison of organic and non-organic food ads shows that there has been little leakage of terminology related to “organic” into mainstream food advertising strategy. Most importantly, we find that “organic” is intermixed with health cues, contributing to the often-found consumer perception that “organic” means “healthier,” and suggesting that the goals of the NOP to offer consumers a clear definition and a way to reduce confusion have not been met in advertising strategy.     

Consumer Perceptions of Advertising as Misleading

A mail survey was conducted of 314 residents of two California cities to measure consumer perception of the prevalence of misleading advertising. Information was obtained concerning the extent of misleading advertising in the various media, for 30 products and services and for three age groups. The findings indicate that over half of the sample viewed “most” or “all” mail and telephone advertising as misleading, and that 38 percent of the respondents regarded “most” or “all” television advertising as misleading. Newspaper advertising was considered the most credible. Findings indicate that “most” or “all” advertising for products and services was viewed as misleading by 30 percent of the respondents. Findings for actions taken concerning misleading advertising indicate that nearly half of the sample had registered a complaint to the store or person advertising and that 29 percent of the respondents had complained to a manufacturer. Also, findings for the age groups indicate that two out of three respondents regarded “most” or “all” advertising directed at children as seriously misleading. Advertising directed at senior citizens was viewed as seriously misleading by 45 percent of the sample, and advertising directed at young and middle-aged adults was viewed as only slightly less misleading.     

If Advertising Won't Die,What Will It Be? Toward a Working Definition of Advertising

Answering recent calls for a new definition of advertising, we identify three dynamics—(new) media and formats, (new) “consumer” behaviors, and extended effects of advertising—that drive the evolution of advertising. Based on these, and a survey of advertising academics and professionals, we formulate an updated working definition of advertising as “brand-initiated communication intent on impacting people.” We also test and validate this definition and the three dynamics in a content analysis of recently published advertising research (2010 to 2015). In doing so, we hope to contribute to a more diverse and contemporary development of advertising research.     

An Involvement Explanation for Nostalgia Advertising Effects

This study seeks to offer additional insights regarding why positive “nostalgia effects” in advertising may be observed, that is, why nostalgic ads tend to elicit more favorable consumer responses than do non-nostalgic ads. Using the personal relevance component of advertising involvement as a theoretical foundation, the study supports hypothesized expectations that nostalgic ads are capable of inducing greater levels of self-reflection and advertising involvement. Furthermore, hypothesized effects were shown to be more pronounced when a “personal” nostalgia-themed ad (eliciting “a yearning for a realized, lived past”) was used, as opposed to when an “historical” nostalgia-themed ad (eliciting “a yearning for a distant past, never experienced”) was used. Theoretical and practical implications of the findings are discussed and directions for future research are offered.     

Going Native: Effects of Disclosure Position and Language on the Recognition and Evaluation of Online Native Advertising

Despite recent industry attention, questions remain about how native advertising is perceived and processed by consumers. Two experiments examined effects of language and positioning in native advertising disclosures on recognition of the content as advertising, effects of recognition on brand and publisher evaluations, and whether disclosure position affects visual attention. Findings show that middle or bottom positioning and wording using “advertising” or “sponsored” increased advertising recognition compared to other conditions, and ad recognition generally led to more negative evaluations. Visual attention mediated the relationship between disclosure position and advertising recognition. Theoretical, practical, and regulatory implications for disclosures in native advertising are discussed.     

Women's bodies,menstruation and marketing “protection:” interpreting a paradox of gendered discourses in consumer practices and advertising campaigns

This essay explores the various associations, conflicts, and resolutions that converge in consumer research to produce an advertising campaign for a feminine hygiene product. Ethnographic research identified a correspondence in beliefs and values among women who discuss menstruation as a natural process of rhythms and flow in their changing bodies. Building off the work of gender discourses in advertising, this paper claims women's “natural” discourse located in research differs from “protection” discourse in advertising, which holds a binary view of menstruation and associates menstruation socially with shame and secrecy. The research reveals that while women adopt a “natural” discourse of menstruation, discourses of “protection” still dominate marketing. Paradoxically, women incorporate both discourses in assemblages of constructing “feminine identities.” This research proposes a correspondence model that regards the consumption of consumer personal-care products in terms of embodiment rather than binary categories as a way to interpret such paradoxes.     

Selective Exposure and Retention of Political Advertising

This article examines the relative roles of “selective exposure” to and “selective retention” of political advertising during the 1972 presidential election. Data was gathered in two regionally diverse metropolitan areas, Philadelphia and Atlanta. Philadelphia indicated greater general exposure to mass media political advertising while Atlantans were more inclined to recall specific advertisements. In general, a medium rated high for advertising exposure mentions will be rated low on selective retention of message, and vice versa. The authors conclude that because of selective exposure and retention, political advertising may only be effective in reinforcing political beliefs rather than in the conversion of voters.     

Disentangling the impact of temperature on consumers' attitudes toward nostalgic advertising

Although the effect of temperature on consumers is ubiquitous, little is known about how temperature affects consumers' attitudes toward nostalgic advertising. Drawing on embodied cognition theory, this study explores the effect of temperature on consumers' attitudes toward nostalgic advertising through the mediator of the affective system. Based on two experiments involving personal and historical nostalgic advertising, our results show that when exposed to comfortable temperature, consumers follow the “assimilative effect” of temperature; warm temperatures trigger more positive attitudes toward nostalgic advertising when compared with cool temperatures. However, when exposed to uncomfortable temperatures, consumers follow the “complementary effect” of temperatures; cold temperatures lead to more positive attitudes toward nostalgic advertising than hot temperatures. Furthermore, the affective system plays a mediating role between temperature and consumers' attitudes toward nostalgic advertising. This study contributes to the literature on temperature in marketing and provides a practical guide for companies to implement nostalgic advertising strategies.     

Knowledge Flows Between Advertising and Other Disciplines: A Social Exchange Perspective

Knowledge flows between advertising and other academic disciplines are examined to identify the structure of scientific knowledge, the extent of social exchange and the scientific status of the field. Bibliometric analysis is used to identify who is citing our research and who we cited. Cocitation patterns for the leading advertising journals (Journal of Advertising [JA], Journal of Advertising Research [JAR], International Journal of Advertising [IJA], Journal of Interactive Advertising [JIA], and Journal of Current Issues and Research in Advertising [JCIRA]) and the top 50 citing and cited journals with citation relationships from 2005 to 2014 were examined. Findings revealed that advertising is citing advertising scholarship the most, followed by marketing, consumer research, psychology, and communication. This suggests a “maturing field” where scholars look within the discipline's body of knowledge. In turn, advertising research is cited by advertising, marketing, business (general), communication, and psychology. The overall citing-to-cited ratio suggests that advertising is more a “receiver” than “provider” of knowledge to other disciplines; however, there is variation across the advertising journals. The positioning of advertising journals in the larger disciplinary framework shows close relationships to consumer research and interactive communication. The most common focus among the top-cited articles is digital media, with few articles focusing on traditional advertising. The implications of our findings for the field of advertising are discussed.     

The “Decorative” Female Model: Sexual Stimuli and the Recognition of Advertisements

Recent evidence suggests an increasing prevalence of “decorative” or functionless female models in print advertising (2, 3, 4, 5). Results of a test of the impact of “decorative” models indicate, however, that models facilitate recognition of model/related information (p< .05) but do little to increase the recognition of brand names. This finding is discussed in terms of a distinction between a product's image and memory of a product's brand name. Implications of this finding are also discussed for practitioners utilizing “decorative” models in their advertising.     

The Development and Testing of a Measure of Skepticism Toward Environmental Claims in Marketers' Communications

Marketers' claims about the environmental effects of products and their packaging are becoming more pervasive. Consumer organizations, government, and marketers have long realized that consumers receive such claims with some degree of skepticism. An investigation of how consumer skepticism affects the response to “green” marketing claims would be facilitated by a reliable and valid measure of skepticism. This paper describes a two-stage research project and the resulting four-item measure of skepticism toward environmental claims made in advertising and on packages. The scale has acceptable levels of reliability and validity.     

“Unprecedented,” “extraordinary,” and “we're all in this together”: Does advertising really need to be so tedious in challenging times?

As government-mandated lockdowns and steep declines in trade set in because of the COVID-19 pandemic, a common theme became apparent in the advertising of the time: It was all the same. Regardless of the product category or brand personality, many ads were remarkably similar. They began with melancholy music, voiceovers reminding the audience that the brand is here for them, and referred to these times as “unprecedented” and “extraordinary.” Ads reassured viewers that “together, we can get through this.” In this installment of Marketing & Technology, we articulate the problem of advertising sameness and explore how and why it likely arises during a time of crisis. We then discuss why advertising uniformity is a problem and present a series of strategic, media, and creative considerations—taking into account the constraints of a crisis— to help marketing professionals produce more effective advertising in the context of a disaster.     

Information content in TV advertising. Consumer policy implications of the growing supply of TV advertising in Europe

The growth of both national and transnational television and TV advertising in Europe raises many issues. One issue of high relevance to traditional consumer policy is, however, barely mentioned, namely the consequences for consumers of the growing quantity of international TV advertising and the consequences of a growth or introduction of TV advertising in general. The purpose of the study reported here is to contribute to an objective evaluation of TV advertising strictly from a consumer point of view. For this purpose the article analyses the information content of the commercials on the satellite channel “Sky Channel” and on the West German channel ZDF. The results of that study are supplemented with the results from a review of those relevant investigations into the information content of print and TV advertising which can be found in the international literature. This includes an attempt to make the studies comparable and a critique of the prevailing tradition in measuring “informativeness”. It is concluded that from a consumer point of view, TV advertising has limited value since information relevant for most purchasing decisions is not communicated to a degree that would seem to have any practical significance for consumers. Furthermore, the information content of print advertising appears to be clearly superior to that of TV advertising.     

Advertising in the Large-Four Institutional Views

Broad assumptions about how advertising does-and should-function in society influence the thinking and actions of critics and supporters alike. Carey, Norris, Potter, and Sandage have analyzed advertising as an institution in American society. Here their “macro” perspectives are first described and then analyzed for their implications. Carey sees advertising linked with “market information,” and Norris with producers' quest for market power. Potter is wary of advertising's social control in an abundant society, while Sandage views advertising as serving the best interests of citizen and society. Their reasoning-and implications-are intriguing.     

Brand Lovemarks Scale of Sport Fans

This study developed and tested a new Lovemarks scale that can measure market positions representing love and respect for a sport team or club. Based on exploratory factor analysis (EFA), confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and nomological network analysis, the research establishes the validity and reliability of the scale for football and basketball teams. This Lovemarks scale for sport teams represents the marketing brand equity for sponsors, advertising, merchandising etc. and provides a new way to classify sport spectators; the “Lovemarks Fans”; “Performance & Quality Fans”; “Fads Spectators”; and “Spectators”.