外资撤离速度与制造业转型升级——基于CGE对IT制造业的仿真分解分析

近年来，IT制造业等外资依赖性较强的产业面临的外资撤离风险不断升高，如何衡量和评估不同撤离速度下内资企业的发展稳定性和实现转型升级的支撑性?文章将CGE模型数值模拟与DEA分解分析相结合，考察不同外资撤离速度场景对IT制造业内资企业的影响，以及机制和路径。结果表明：1、当外资流入为0或者其存量以5%的速度小幅持续撤离时，内资企业受影响较小。较高的资本深化率、技术效率和技术进步使得其能够较快填补市场空白，具备企稳回升的能力；2、当外资存量以25%的较高速度撤离时，内资企业由于技术进步受到抑制，劳动生产率处于不可扭转的持续下滑趋势；3、外资企业在可见预期内仍然将是内资企业的主要技术进步来源，外资撤离会通过抑制内资企业技术进步，从而约束资本深化和技术效率的路径中对内资企业的稳定发展和转型升级产生负面影响。基于上述研究，文章提出相关政策启示和建议。     

Quantitative easing and Japanese bank equity values

One of the primary motivations offered by the Bank of Japan (BOJ) for its quantitative easing program—whereby it maintained a current account balance target in excess of required reserves, effectively pegging short-term interest rates at zero—was to maintain credit extension by the troubled Japanese financial sector. We conduct an event study concerning the anticipated impact of quantitative easing on the Japanese banking sector by examining the impact of the introduction and expansion of the policy on Japanese bank equity values. We find that excess returns of Japanese banks were greater when increases in the BOJ current account balance target were accompanied by “non-standard” expansionary policies, such as raising the ceiling on BOJ purchases of long-term Japanese government bonds. We also provide cross-sectional evidence that suggests that the market perceived that the quantitative easing program would disproportionately benefit financially weaker Japanese banks. J. Japanese Int. Economies 20 (4) (2006) 699–721.     

Firm Productivity and Foreign Direct Investment into Non‐core Activities*

As foreign direct investment (FDI) often originates from multinational enterprises (MNEs) with non‐core activities and not single‐product firms, as MNE theory typically suggests, we hypothesize that such firms are more productive than MNEs without non‐core activities as well as non‐MNE firms. We test this hypothesis using Kolmogorov–Smirnov stochastic dominance Tests and Japanese firm‐level productivity and FDI data for the period 1985–2001. We find that both manufacturing and service multinational firms with non‐core foreign investments stochastically dominate firms without non‐core activities. We also find cost‐complementarities between certain core and non‐core FDI activities that span both manufacturing and service affiliates.     

Affiliates and parent employment through foreign direct investment: a study case of substitutability or complementarity

How does outward foreign direct investment (FDI) affect employment of multinationals in the home country? Does the impact of outward investment differ among manufacturing and service sectors? Using data on Italian MNEs, this paper examines the impact of Italian outward FDI on local employment between 1998 and 2006. In particular, we investigate the relationship existing between employment in the parent company and employment in foreign affiliates by distinguishing according to host-country location and sector of activity. The results suggest that the effects of Italian outward FDI on domestic employment differ according to the sector and the country of destination. In the manufacturing sector, a weak but significant relationship of labour substitutability is found for Italian MNEs producing low-technology products in foreign affiliates localized in high-wage countries. On the other hand, a significant North–south complementarity relationship in labour demands appears in the High and Medium-high- technology sectors. In the service sector, we find strong complementarity between employment in the parent firm and employment in foreign affiliates: in particular, this regards Italian MNEs producing knowledge-intensive services both in Western affiliates and CEEC locations. These results are robust when we control for endogeneity of output and parent wages.     

The Strategy of foreign-invested manufacturing enterprises in China: Export-orientated and market-orientated FDI revisited

This paper examines export-orientated and market-orientated foreign direct investment (FDI) in China's manufacturing industry. Based on Fung's () survey estimation of China's market-orientated FDI in 1992 and China's Third National Industrial Census in 1995, we quantify the proportion of market-orientated FDI in China 1992–2002. By combining and verifying various data sources, our estimation shows that market-orientated FDI accounts for the majority of China's total inward FDI in manufacturing industry and has grown faster than export-orientated FDI over the period 1992–2002. Our industry level analysis suggests that Overseas Chinese investors are more export-orientated than Western investors. The study suggests that many inward investors follow a dual market strategy. The coexistence of export-orientated and Chinese domestic market-orientated FDI is a reflection of the flexibility of MNEs to adjust and adapt ownership attributes to the local market context. The study offers insights into the evolutionary development path taken by foreign-invested manufacturing enterprises in China.     

Vertical foreign direct investment: Evidence from Japanese and U.S. multinational enterprises

Foreign direct investment (FDI) in developing countries has increased since the 1990s, but there is mixed evidence of vertical FDI associated with factor-seeking motives. This paper estimates the vertical motive of offshore production by multinational enterprises (MNEs) by exploiting past schooling characteristics as instruments for skilled-labor abundance in a host country. Using panel data on Japanese and U.S. MNEs in the 1990s, I find that skilled-labor abundance has a significantly negative impact on sales of manufacturing foreign affiliate only for Japanese MNEs. The results suggest that vertical FDI activity was more prevalent in Japanese MNEs than U.S. MNEs. A plausible explanation is that Japanese MNEs might be more vertically integrated with their offshore production than U.S. MNEs. A difference in foreign outsourcing activities could generate the observed deviation between Japanese and U.S. MNEs.     

外商直接投资对我国制造业比较优势的影响分析

本文通过1995~2009年外商直接投资和产业比较优势指数的分析表明,外商直接投资对我国制造业比较优势有显著影响,外商直接投资对我国服装业等劳动密集型制造业的比较优势呈现负相关,而对资本和技术密集型工业制造业的比较优势呈正相关。随着我国生产要素成本提高和消费市场的扩大,外商直接投资推动着我国劳动密集型制造业转型升级,同时促进资本和技术密集型制造业发展。未来,我国将由"世界工厂"向"世界市场"转变,生产环节将由"低端的加工"向"研发和市场两端"外移,因此,"十二五"期间我国要根据产业比较优势的动态变化,加强对外商直接投资的产业引导。     

Internalization is still a general theory of foreign direct investment

Conclusions Part IV of Parry's article discusses three types of FDI activity by MNEs; these are correctly analyzed and fully consistent with my earlier work. All the three cases (vertical integration, transfer pricing and quality control) are examples of market imperfections which lead to internalization. I am glad that Parry accepts these“three areas where internalization appears to provide an explanation of FDI as a specific form of international involvement by the MNE” but I am surprized that he still cannot accept the general point that these are examples of“market failure” in an international context, which lead to multinational hierarchical activity. The focus of my survey article was to demonstrate that“established theories of FDI” tend to fasten one to one or another of such market imperfections, but in all cases internalization results. Internalization as a general theory of FDI is still a robust principle. It provides the conceptual foundation for analysis of the MNE and the field of international business.     

EU enlargement and its impacts on East Asia

Ten countries—most completing their transition from socialist-based economies to market economies—are slated to join the European Union (EU) in 2004 and four additional countries are expected to become members at some future dates. Despite the relatively small economic size of the accession countries, this type of deep integration can have non-negligible effects on countries outside of the preferential zone as the reduction in barriers across partners leads to a re-orientation of trade. In this paper, we evaluate the extent of trade adjustments and the economic impacts it will have on the East Asian economies using a dynamic computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. The overall macroeconomic effects on East Asia are small. There is some trade diversion, but there may be an opportunity to increase market penetration in some sectors of the expanding EU for which East Asia has a marked comparative advantage. The paper also assesses the relative importance of linking trade openness to productivity and lowering trade costs between the accession countries and the EU-15.     

The effects of regional trade agreements on FDI by its origin and type: Evidence from U.S. multinational enterprises activities

The effects of regional trade agreements (RTAs) on foreign direct investment (FDI) depend on both the origin and type of FDI. To estimate the various effects of RTAs, I differentiate between various types of FDI by using data on the sales destinations of foreign subsidiaries of U.S. multinational enterprises (MNEs), while also addressing the endogeneity of RTA formation. Consistent with the theory of MNEs, I find that RTAs reduce horizontal FDI from intra-RTA countries and increase export-platform and total FDI from extra-RTA countries. Moreover, the overall effects of RTAs are positive for extra-RTA FDI, but inconclusive for intra-RTA FDI. The results also support the effect of integrated markets’ economies of scale in inducing extra-RTA FDI.     

Location choice in low-income countries: Evidence from Japanese investments in East Asia

Unlike most existing studies, this paper examines the location choices of multinational enterprises (MNEs) in low-income countries. Specifically, we investigate the location choices of Japanese MNEs among East Asian developing countries by estimating a four-stage nested logit model and a mixed logit model at the province level. Our findings are as follows. First, Japanese MNEs consider Cambodia, Laos, Myanmar, and Vietnam to be host countries different from China and the forerunners of ASEAN. In other words, for Japanese investors, ASEAN forerunners are countries replaceable by China. Second, the mechanics of vertical FDI are more likely to appear in FDIs in low-income countries. For example, rather than the market size of the host country, tariff rates on products from investing countries are more crucial location elements.     

Inward FDI and demand for skills in manufacturing firms in Sweden

We observe a substantial increase in foreign ownership in Sweden in the 1990s. Did that have any effect on relative demand for skilled labor? Has technology transfers—often associated with inward FDI—led to an increased demand for skills due to skilled-biased technical change? Are there any grounds for the concerns in the public Swedish debate that more skilled activities have been moved to other countries where the headquarters are located? Estimating relative labor demand at the firm level and using propensity score matching with difference-in-difference estimation, we obtain support for that relative demand for skilled labor tend to rise in non-multinationals (non-MNEs)—but not in multinationals (MNEs)—that become foreign-owned. Other interesting findings are that larger presence of foreign MNEs in an industry appears to have a positive impact on the relative demand for skills in Swedish MNEs within the same industry and that the elasticity of substitution between skilled and less-skilled labor seems to be lower in MNEs than in non-MNEs.     

中国FDI区域配置效率:总体特征与地区差异

在开放模型中，区域FDI的内生程度是较高的。对大国经济来说，FDI区域配置效率问题意义重大。本文实证研究发现，中国FDI配置效应存在较大的区域差异，就动态趋势而言，东部总体优势相对减弱，其它地区尤其是中部地区综合优势较为明显。进一步的研究表明，在国家、区域间和区域内三个层面上，FDI配置效率影响因素各不相同。国家层面上。市场潜力、公共资本等因素权重较大。在区域问，区住、知识与技术、劳动力成本等因素的作用比较关键。在区域内部。各因素重要性各异。最后，就提高FDI区域配置效率问题，深化对外开放，促进区域经济协调发展问题。提出政策建议。     

Firm-specific advantages,entry modes,and performance of Japanese FDI in Thailand

This study examines how firm-specific advantages and entry mode choice of MNEs determine the performance of their overseas subsidiaries. We propose that the fit between the parent firm’s specific advantages and entry mode has a positive influence on the performance of its directly owned subsidiary. The hypotheses are tested empirically based on a sample of Japanese FDI located in Thailand. The result suggests that the greenfield venture tends to have a higher performance profile than the international joint venture when the Japanese parent firm possesses relatively high firm-specific advantages. Yet it has a poor performance if the Japanese parent firm lacks specific advantages.     

The complementarity between U.S. foreign direct investment stock and trade

Within a gravity model framework, this paper will establish that trade and foreign direct investment (FDI) are complementary, using trade and FDI stock data on a bilateral basis between the U.S. and 51 other countries over the period 1982 to 1994. U.S. outward FDI is found to have a larger predicted impact on U.S. exports than does inward FDI. On the other hand, inward FDI is found to have a larger predicted impact on U.S. imports than does U.S. outward FDI. These results are directly linked to patterns of intrafirm trade within the multinational enterprise (MNE), a result consistent with the transactions cost theory of MNEs. In addition, a sectoral analysis indicates that U.S. outward FDI in manufacturing has a large predicted impact on both exports and imports, whereas U.S. outward FDI in services has a large predicted impact on U.S. exports but little or no predicted impact on imports. Detailed comments and suggestions were provided by Joe Daniels, Albert Berry, and seminar participants at the University of Toronto, York University, Industry Canada, and the 1999 annual Canadian Economics Association meeting. Research assistance was provided by George Georgopoulos and Anthony Yao. The authors are responsible for any remaining errors.     

中国外商直接投资的区位决定——基于地区数据的空间计量分析

本文基于1992-2002年的中国各省市的面板数据,采用空间计量经济学的方法,研究了中国外商直接投资(FDI)的区位决定。研究的结果表明,教育水平、基础设施、省市市场规模、FDI存量和优惠政策对FDI流入具有显著的正面影响,而劳动力成本是显著的负面影响;各省市周边市场潜力的影响不显著,这进一步证实了中国国内市场的分割性。在进行稳健性检验后,还发现各省市FDI之间是否为互补关系还不能确定。     

The Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment in Malaysia: A Revisit

Abstract

The paper re-examines the determinants of foreign direct investment (FDI) in Malaysia, for the period 1970–2006. The cointegration results show that market size of both Malaysia and China have major, and a statistically significant impact, on FDI inflow to Malaysia. The results seem to support the argument that foreign investors tend to be more attracted to the country with a higher growth rate of gross domestic product (GDP) because it indicates a larger potential demand for their products. In addition, the results also demonstrate that openness level of the country has a positive and statistically significant effect on FDI inflow, which supports the hypothesis that FDI can be attracted to a country with more liberalized economic reforms. Finally, the results show that literacy rate (human capital development) has significant positive effect on FDI inflow. The finding suggests the need for labor force expansion and education policy to raise the stock of human capital in the country. Using Granger causality test, we also find that there exist unidirectional causality from real GDP of both Malaysia and China, degree of openness and literacy rate to FDI inflow.     

人民币汇率变动对中国FDI流入的影响

本文结合人民币汇率与外商直接投资,利用我国1985-2011年省级面板数据,实证分析了人民币汇率变动对中国FDI流入的影响。研究结果表明:1地理位置对我国FDI的流入产生显著的正向效应。沿海省份具有相对的地理位置优势,更容易吸引外商直接投资;2场规模与市场潜力对吸收外商直接投资具有显著的正向促进作用。市场规模和市场潜力越大,FDI流入越多;3劳动力成本与外商直接投资呈显著地负向关系。劳动力成本越低,越能吸引更多的外资直接投资;4实际有效汇率对FDI流入产生显著地正向效应。实际有效汇率升高,本币贬值,更容易吸引外商直接投资。     

粤港澳湾区市场一体化对该地区FDI的影响——基于固定效应及异质性检验的分析

运用粤港澳湾区2001—2018年的商品市场一体化指数,通过固定效应模型实证研究市场一体化对粤港澳湾区外商直接投资(FDI)的影响并进行异质性检验.结果显示:粤港澳湾区的市场一体化指数与FDI负相关,市场一体化指数越高,FDI反而减少;同时,滞后的市场一体化指数与FDI具有显著的负相关关系,而不同地区的市场一体化程度对外商投资有不同的影响.在此基础上,政府应当积极制定引导政策,大力推进高素质人才建设,并坚持对外开放,同时针对地区差异因势利导,发挥优势促进经济内循环.     

Labor market institutions and firms’ location choices

The paper evaluates the empirical effects of labor market institutions (LMI) on foreign direct investment (FDI) decisions using an individual dataset describing French firms’ expansion strategies in OECD countries over 1992–2002. First, we provide evidence that labor market institutions do matter in location decisions. Precisely, we show that labor market rigidity significantly reduces the country’s attractiveness for foreign investors. Yet, the effect is of limited magnitude compared to FDI determinants related to the country’s market potential or supply access. Second, we go deeper in the precise role of various LMI dimensions. In line with the literature, we find that stringent employment protection laws have a dampening effect on the location probability. Besides, we show that this is not the only dimension that matters. In particular, we find that the generosity of the unemployment benefit system plays a significant negative role on the country’s attractiveness, even once the role of employment protection is controlled for.