Production and costs in the South African motor vehicle industry

This study investigates the existence of economies of scale in the South African motor vehicle industry as well as the substitution possibilities between input pairs and the direct and cross-price elasticities of demand for the various inputs. Because of data limitations, a translog cost function was estimated for only a three input model corresponding to a homogeneous production function involving capital, labour and intermediate goods. The issue of the existence of economies of scale in the South African motor vehicle industry is a particularly important one because South Africa once again is a member of GATT and a full participant in the international trade arena. The null hypothesis of constant returns to scale was rejected at the 0.5% level of significance. Thus, the results of this model are certainly consistent with economies of scale in the South African motor vehicle industry. The estimated direct price elasticities were consistent with the hypothesis that, during the past two decades, capital was the productive factor with the most elastic demand, and the estimated cross-elasticities between input pairs generally supported the hypothesis that all inputs are substitutes.     

Oil shocks and the dynamics of substitution adjustments of industrial fuels in the US

This paper investigates substitution among such alternate fuels as coal, natural gas, and electricity during the actual oil price increases of 1970s. These substitution adjustments are assumed to be dynamic and modelled by a partial adjustment structure. This dynamic structure is incorporated into a translog cost technology. Short- and long-run price elasticities are estimated by identifying inter- and intra-industry variations. The models are estimated with a sample of 88 pooled observations, including distillate and residual oils purchased by eleven 2-digit manufacturing groups (1974-81). Models are estimates are strictly negative. These own price elasticities range from (long-to short-run) –2.93 to –2.55 for distillate oil, –0.698 to – 1.53 for residual oil, –0.533 to 0.011 for coal, –0.235 to –0.213 for natural gas, to –0.888 to –0.845 for electricity. Estimastes of both short-run and long-run cross-price elasticities suggest that coal and electric energy are the prominent substitutes for fuel oils. While the relationship between the latter and natural gas remains largely complementary.     

An application of dynamic specifications of factor demand equations to interfuel substitution in US industrial energy demand

In a recent paper, Jones (1995) [A dynamic analysis of the interfuel substitution in US industrial energy demand. J. Bus. Econ. Stat. 13 (4), 459–465] presents a dynamic analysis of interfuel substitution in US industry energy demand. The author concludes that a dynamic linear logit model is ‘superior' to a comparable dynamic translog model. The latter in fact violates concavity conditions whilst the logit formulation does not. This paper shows first of all that the dynamic formulation of the translog used in Jones (1995) is mis-specified. In fact, a parsimonious error-correction model (ECM) ‘dominates' alternative dynamic formulations, amongst which the partial adjustment mechanism used by the author. The ECM is able to generate optimal estimates of long-run and short-run elasticities, and it satisfies the concavity conditions of the cost function. Further, the theoretical framework used in this paper is the one recently proposed by Urga (1996) [On the identification problem in testing dynamic specification of factor demand equations. Econ. Lett. 52, 205–210] and Allen and Urga (1998) [Derivation and estimation of interrelated factor demands from dynamic cost function. Forthcoming in Economica]. It allows one to identify all coefficients (long-run and short-run) of the dynamic formulation via the joint estimation of the ‘effective' (short-run) cost function and the set of factor demand equations. This strategy solves, amongst other things, the parameter identification problem within the set of demand equations themselves, an issue which was originally noted by Anderson and Blundell (1982) [Estimation and hypothesis testing in dynamic singular equation systems. Econometrica, 1559–1571], re-addressed by Friesen (1992) [Testing dynamic specification of factor demand equations for US manufacturing. Rev. Econ. Stat. LXXIV (2), 240–250] and, more recently, by Urga (1996) and Allen and Urga (1998).     

The Impact of the Rating Agencies' Through‐the‐cycle Methodology on Rating Dynamics

Surveys on the use of agency credit ratings reveal that some investors believe that credit‐rating agencies are relatively slow in adjusting their ratings. A well‐accepted explanation for this perception on rating timeliness is the through‐the‐cycle methodology that agencies use. Through‐the‐cycle ratings are intended to measure default risk over long investment horizons and to respond only to changes in the permanent component of credit quality. A second aspect of the through‐the‐cycle methodology is the prudent migration policy. In a benchmark study with a financial ratio‐based credit‐scoring models – an agency‐rating prediction model and default‐prediction models with various time horizons – we confirm the exclusive focus of agencies on the permanent component of credit quality and we model and quantify the agencies' prudent migration policy. A rating migration is triggered only when the rating predicted by the agency‐rating prediction model differs by at least a threshold level of 1.8 notch steps from the actual agency rating. If triggered, ratings are only partly adjusted by 70 per cent at the downside and 60 per cent at the upside. From a 1‐year point‐in‐time perspective, weighting temporary fluctuations in credit quality, the through‐the‐cycle methodology lowers the rating‐migration probability by a factor of 3.5. Both aspects of the through‐the‐cycle methodology contribute equally to this factor. The partial adjustment of ratings lowers the rating‐reversal probabilities on short term and introduces rating drift, the known serial correlation in agency‐rating migrations.     

Are sports teams multiproduct firms?

The appropriate conception of team outputs is investigated by estimating a two-output factor demand system for baseball teams, relative to which single-output models are rejected. This finding is robust to alternative approaches to testing and model choice. The factor demands are those of the symmetric generalized McFadden cost function, which has several advantages in this context. The team factor inputs are the skill characteristics of players, the prices of which are obtained hedonically. In addition to investigating one- versus two-output models, the estimation results are used to obtain demand and substitution elasticities, factor input elasticities with respect to output, cost elasticities, and measures of economies of scale and scope. Although the results support a multiproduct conception of team production, output separability is not rejected, suggesting that team outputs may sometimes be adequately treated as a production aggregate.     

A class of changing elasticity of substitution production functions

This paper presents a new class of production functions with a changing elasticity of substitution between two input factors. Over a freely chosen number of intervals for the input factor intensity freely chosen elasticities of substitution can be imposed. The resulting production function can thus account for changing elasticities of substitution during the development of the factor intensity. The production function is applied in a calibration exercise and a novel normalization procedure is proposed. The theory behind this production technology builds on the functional normalization of CES production functions.     

ω‐Homothetic Preferences: Theory and Applications

This paper develops a new class of homothetic preferences which generate Marshallian demand curves for individual goods which can be concave, convex or linear in own price under the assumption that agents treat aggregate price indices as given (as in Dixit‐Stiglitz, 1977). The preferences are represented by a cost function which has two parameters: one determining the curvature of the Marshallian demand; the other determining the elasticity of demand when all prices are equal. The elasticity of demand varies with relative prices. Illustrative examples are given of Cournot duopoly and exchange rate pass‐through.     

The structure of production in South Korea's manufacturing sector

This paper estimates a model of producer behavior for South Korean manufacturing that simultaneously identifies substitution elasticities and scale economies. A non-homothetic translog function is employed which takes on various other functional forms (i.e., Cobb–Douglas, Homothetic, Homogeneous) as special or limiting cases. Four significant conclusions are: (a) there is potential scale economies in each subsector of South Korean manufacturing, (b) the substitutabilities between factor inputs are relatively low, (c) factor demands are price elastic, (d) the scale economies are correlated with the factor intensity.     

Labour substitution and complementarity among age–sex groups

We measure substitution in production for major age-sex groups in ten industries. These estimates are important for productivity studies, for modelling derives demand for labour and for formulating policies that deal with anticipated trends in the age-sex composition of the labour force. We use Sato's two-level CES production to estimate Hicks partial factor price elasticities, with quarterly time-series taken from the Social Security Continuous Work History Sample (1958 to 1975). Own elasticities are generally small and negative but vary considerably across industries. Cross elasticities show complementarity among most groups, except for younger and older females, who are subtitutes.     

Modeling technological bias and factor input behavior in China's wheat production sector

Over the past three decades, China has implemented reforms in the agricultural sector in an attempt to increase efficiency and food security. However, China now faces a number of environmental degradation problems, in part, caused by her past agricultural reforms. In this paper we estimate, using a provincial-based panel dataset, a third-order translog cost function for China's grain production sector over the period 1990–2011. Results from the estimation, including estimated elasticities of demand for and substitution of factors, suggest that labor and capital are substitutes. This arises because the increasing cost of labor, induced by urbanization and the growth of the manufacturing sector, has lead to a substitution of machinery for labor in the production of wheat. The results are consistent with current government policies to encourage via subsidies and agricultural mechanization, which we show to be technically, a substitute for labor. We further conclude this will create an additional bonus of reducing the amount of fertilizer that is needed to efficiently and securely produce wheat in China, as the new capital is more efficient at fertilizer distribution.     

Elasticities of substitution between energy and non-energy inputs in China power sector

Energy substitution is considered as a key process to determine the economic outcome of decisions related to energy and environment policies. The sign and magnitude of energy substitution have been widely debated, and the results are divergent. This paper applies the translog cost function specification to estimate factor share equations based on the energy and non-energy inputs, whose coefficients are used to observe the energy degree of substitutability with the other traditional inputs for power industry in China. The results suggest that energy is the least price sensitive among three production factors. The four types of input elasticities (cross-price, Morishima's, Allen and McFadden's shadow elasticity of substitution) show that there are substantial substitution possibilities between energy and capital, while energy and labor have weak substitution. The findings imply that for power industry in China, to reduce energy consumption, more capital should be invested. With respect to labor, though, it appears less energy-saving potential.     

Farm price responsiveness and the choice of functional form: An application to rice cultivation in West Malaysia

The estimated responsiveness of farmers to changes in the prices of output or inputs is in general very sensitive to the econometric model used. Using cross-section survey data for farms in marginal rice-growing districts in West Malaysia price elasticities based on estimated input demand equations derived from a quadratic restricted profit function were found to be superior to those derived from translog or Cobb-Douglas production functions or from a translog restricted profit function. The Cobb-Douglas production function is restrictive and should be used sparingly. Restricted profit functions are only believable if the available price data are of high quality.     

Testing the Induced Innovation Hypothesis in a Cointegrating Regression Model

This study proposes a method for testing the induced innovation hypothesis using a cointegrating regression model. An error correction model of the share equations derived from a translog cost function model is used for the estimation. Cointegration among the variables ensures the existence of the innovation possibility curve. An error correction term of the model represents the technological change process. A difference in the elasticities of factor substitution along the isoquant curve and the innovation possibility curve implies the induced technological innovation. An empirical application is also carried out using time-series data of rice production in Japan.
JEL Classification Numbers: O33, Q10, C32.     

Factor analysis of demand growth for information technology input in Japan

The purpose of this article is to decompose demand changes for factor input and explore the factor that information technology (IT) capital stock has largely increased in Japan. The Allen partial elasticities of substitution are calculated and the variations in factor input demand are broken down into two effects—price effect and output effect, using industry-level data. From an estimation of the total cost function, the following conclusions are presented. While IT capital stock and ordinary capital stock are complementary, IT serves as a substitute for labor. The factors influencing the high growth rate in IT capital stock are the decrease in the prices of IT and ordinary capital services, and the increase in the labor price, in addition to the output effect. On the other hand, labor demand declines due to both the downward rigidity of wages and the decrease in prices of two kinds of capital services.     

V-Branch: A generalized utility function

Much of the work in demand theory is restricted by the functional form of the relationship The S-Branch utility function, which is a generalization of the linear expenditure system, corrects many of the restrictions. Many faults, however, still exist. The Allen partial elasticities of substitution are equal and constant for all commodities from different subsets of the function. The V-Branch utility function corrects many of these faults. The Allen partial elasticities of substitution are not restricted to be constant or equal either within or between commodity subsets. They vary according to the amount consumed of each commodity.     

An Empirical Analysis of Cost Efficiency in Non‐profit and Public Nursing Homes

Abstract *** :  This paper examines the issue of cost‐efficiency in Switzerland's nursing homes, an issue of concern to policy makers because of the rapid growth of elderly care expenditure and the aging of the population. The fact that nursing homes in Switzerland exist in different institutional forms, private for‐profit, government and non‐profit status, raises the issue of their relative cost efficiency. A panel data of 17 public and 19 nonprofit nursing homes operating over the 9‐year period from 1993 to 2001, in one of the 26 Swiss cantons, Ticino, is studied. Ticino's nursing homes are heavily regulated and monitored by the canton's authorities. However, given that in public firms there are more bureaucratic constraints and agency problems, one can expect a relatively low level of cost‐efficiency. In this paper the effect of institutional form on efficiency is studied using a translog stochastic cost‐frontier model. Several specifications are used to study the robustness of the results. The results suggest that the institutional form influences the efficiency of the studied nursing homes in that non‐profit foundations are likely to be more cost‐efficient than the nursing homes operated by government administration. The results also suggest that a great majority of the nursing homes in the sample do not fully benefit from scale economies. This implies that efficiency gains can be obtained with larger capacities or joint operations .     

A Simple Characterization of the Second‐best Two‐part and Block‐rate Tariffs Theory and Applications

The general necessary optimality conditions for second‐best discrete multipart tariffs are rather complex. In this paper, we derive a simplified characterization of these conditions for two‐part tariffs and for block‐rate tariffs for given thresholds of these tariffs. The simplified necessary optimality conditions are equivalent to the necessary conditions for a Ramsey‐optimum for goods with continuously variable individually demanded quantities. We demonstrate that this characterization of second‐best multipart tariffs can be helpful, when applying the usual regulatory mechanisms to these tariffs. In particular, we consider Vogelsang–Finsinger (1979) regulation as well as a particular form of price‐cap regulation which is related to the Laspeyres index of prices.     

Labour and capital saving technical change in telecommunications

The Australian telecommunications sector is being improved and extended through substantial recent investment in intelligent technology such as digital switching, fibre optics, satellite and cellular transmission, and the Internet. These technologies are being progressively integrated with technology from the broadcasting, computer and electronics industries, providing a unified information infrastructure for information transmission and processing. Technological progress embodied in new equipment has the effect of increasing the efficiency of the factors of production. Such efficiency increases can be biased towards a particular factor. For instance, the impact of labour-augmenting technical change is a decline in the cost of labour per unit of production. When such biases are apparent the relativity between the costs of labour and capital per unit of production is changed. In the longer term, technical change can impact on the rate of employment growth and also on the rate of capital accumulation. In this study the Australian telecommunications cost structure is examined for the period 1919 to 1988. To measure labour saving and capital saving technical change a translog cost model is estimated. Multiproduct telecommunications cost studies typically employ the translog cost model (Evans and Heckman, 1984; Roöller, 1990a; 1990b; Shin and Ying, 1992; McKenzie and Small, 1997). The translog model places no a priori restrictions on substitution possibilities among the factors of production, and allows scale economies to vary with the level of output.     

Nachfragefunktionen für die Produktionsfaktoren Arbeit und Kapital

Summary In this paper we present dynamic factor demand functions for labour and capital, and the underlying production function for the Austrian economy. Our approach is neoclassical. By definition, the production function is of the Cobb-Douglas type; experiments with a CES production function were not successful. Our empirical results look very plausible. The adjustement speeds, the output and price elasticities of both factor demand functions, as well as the parameters of the underlying production function are of a order of magnitude highly compatible with neoclassical theory.     

Characteristics of West German demand for international tourism in the northern Mediterranean region

The purpose of this paper is to establish the economic determinants of West Germany's demand for international tourism in six northern Mediterranean nations. The methodology makes use of the translog utility function. Homotheticity and additivity restrictions of the utility theory are tested as hypotheses. Expenditure (income), own and cross-price elasticities are claculated for each of the twenty years from 1966 to 1985.