International Franchising Research: Some Thoughts on the What,Where, When,and How

The purpose of this article is to examine the present state of international franchising research. We consider the origins and evolution of franchising as an enterprise form and summarize relevant research in this area. We advance and substantiate the premise that franchising research in the global arena has largely followed the geographic expansion trajectory of the franchise industry. And, based on these themes, we conclude by identifying a series of significant research topics in the international franchising domain.     

International Franchising: Evolution of Theory and Practice

This paper reviews the evolution of the theory of international franchising over the past two decades, from its humble beginnings in the early 1990s. The theories are grouped into three time phases. Ten theory papers are considered. It is clear that apart from a basic decision-making model explaining whether to internationalize or not, the theory of international franchising has “borrowed” theory from mainstream marketing. In particular, international franchising theory has evolved by incorporating capabilities theory, relationship theory, stakeholder theory, and governance mode theory. The biggest opportunity for future international franchising research is to add a branding theory perspective. Four sub-topics are put forward as promising areas for future research.     

选择与选择成本——品牌降低选择成本的机制分析

本文通过对选择爆炸式增长的描述,抽象出一般选择过程模型,并深入分析这一过程中所发生的成本及构成,证明品牌正是通过降低消费者的选择成本提高了选择效率,而企业外部顾客的选择效率决定了处于过剩阶段企业的内部价值的实现和内部效率的高低。本文区分了交易费用与选择成本的差别,进一步深化了对"品牌经济学"分析范式的核心范畴——选择成本的认识。     

Country Resources,Country Image,and Exports: Country Branding and International Marketing Implications

ABSTRACT

A country's economic, political, and socio-cultural institutions have always been regarded as important determinants of a company's exports and international marketing strategies. With the recent thinking about countries becoming more like a brand, these factors should impact a country's marketing and branding strategies. There has been a call for more research on how countries can use their institutions and resources to enhance their globalization efforts. This study intends to fill this gap by examining the relationships between country institutions and resources, country image, and exports based on institution theory and resource advantage theory. Both archival and primary data for 24 countries over 12 years (1995–2006) were used to assess a random-effects panel data model. The results reveal the significance of economic development and communication infrastructure on exports. In addition, country image was found to indirectly affect exports. The theoretical and practical implications on country branding and international marketing conclude the article.     

技术标准选择的博弈模型研究

从博弈论的角度分析技术标准选择过程,通过构建数学博弈模型,论证技术标准选择的均衡点和稳定策略等问题。应用该模型不仅可以确定先行者在存在网络效应的技术标准产品市场上可获得先发优势,还能用于学习成本锁定、合同锁定和顾客忠诚度锁定。通过锁定策略构建"软硬件"同盟策略,可以建立起技术标准研发的政府扶持机制,包括制定技术标准自主创新的发展战略,支持技术标准自主创新的公共政策,营造技术标准自主创新的良好环境,培育技术标准的自主创新主体。     

交易费用、农户认知及其契约选择——基于浙赣琼黔的调研

对中国四省份507户农户的农产品流通渠道契约选择意愿的研究发现,农户对合作社和合同销售模式的认知程度低,其契约选择意愿与实际契约选择之间差异显著。传统市场流通模式在现实中仍占主导地位,但农户的契约选择意愿倾向于合同模式和合作社模式。因子分析和多元 Logistic 回归分析的结果显示,农户对市场信息和销售渠道的认知、农户谈判能力以及农户的文化水平和党员身份都显著影响其契约模式选择意愿。政策启示是,要继续加大对现代农产品流通体系的宣传力度,提高农户认知水平; 加强农村信息化服务建设,降低农户信息搜寻成本; 加强政府对超市和农业龙头企业与农户开展合同产销模式的支持和监管,稳定农户和各类农产品流通主体的利益联结机制。     

Influence of International Trade Agreements on International Business: A Conceptual Model

The article provides a conceptual model, developed from analyzing over fifty trade agreement related research studies published during the last decade, which allows international business scholars to explore the influence of trade agreements (custom unions, free trade agreements, preferential trade agreements, regional trade agreements) on foreign market entry strategies. This model is an attempt to develop IB theory to address the current research gap in this very narrow but important allied field. Empirical findings generated by interviewing dairy produce exporters in New Zealand reveal a remarkable connection between TAs and IB, with TAs found to influence the regulative environment of participating countries, which may in turn reduce the regulative distance between member nations. The contribution provides a basis for IB researchers to explore this connection in multiple industries/countries.     

Strategic Implications of Alliances and Other Linkages of Leading Telecom Operators in Brazil: Network and International Perspectives

In response to competitive pressures created by privatization, telecom firms in developing countries are establishing alliances and other types of linkages—mergers and acquisitions—with foreign partners to ensure customer competitive advantages in global markets. However, there have been very few studies on the alliances of telecom operators in Brazil, an increasingly important BRIC. This article presents the results of research that aimed to fill this gap by identifying, from a network/international perspective, the opportunities/threats created by the relevant linkages of leading telecom operators in Brazil. The results suggest that acquisitions—and especially alliance-type linkages with foreign partners—have created opportunities for boosting performance, in keeping with their new strategic profile.     

拓展国际市场的联合品牌策略:影响因素及实施过程研究

近年来,联合品牌已成为在世界范围内日益为企业所广泛采用的一种策略性营销工具。本文将联合品牌策略置于经济全球化背景之下,在论述联合品牌作用及其机制的基础上,分析联合品牌策略的影响因素,并对企业如何实施联合品牌策略以拓展国际市场进行了探讨。     

ESD: A Formal Consciousness Model for International Negotiation

We develop the Evolutionary Systems Design (ESD) formal consciousness model for international negotiation extending the usual cognitive rationality of formal models to right rationality validated subjectively by cognition, affection, conation, holistically, and spiritually. Two subjective validation tests for right rationality are described. The purpose is to attain right negotiation agreements in international negotiation. Practice and computer implementation are discussed and applications presented. Though the ESD general formal mathematical model is an evolving difference game, in applying it to specific problems mathematical symbols are not normally used, relations between generally familiar sets of elements being expressed by tables (matrices). We believe that ESD can help close the gap between formal modeling and practice of international negotiation.     

并购动机与并购绩效——基于节约交易成本视角及进一步投资需求的检验

基于节省签订合约成本的研究视角,区分企业横向并购和纵向并购,检验企业纵向并购的内在动机对长期并购绩效的影响。结果发现:专用性资产是企业纵向并购的必要条件,进一步投资则是企业纵向并购的内在动机;相比于横向并购,纵向并购有着更好的长期并购绩效,且随着观测时期的加长而愈加显著。通过中介效应模型检验发现:进一步投资对纵向并购的长期并购绩效具有显著正向影响。纵向并购在节省由专用性资产导致的高昂签订合约成本的同时,不可避免会产生新的组织成本,而进一步投资带来的收益抵消新的成本是企业纵向并购的内在动机,并会带来好的长期并购绩效,但需要在并购一段时间后才能逐渐体现。本文结论的政策含义是强调并购动机与并购绩效的相关性,而以降低交易成本为目的的并购更倾向于有更好的长期绩效,这也是相关并购政策发挥作用的重要前提。     

国际贸易的全成本观:一个新的理论视角

国际贸易理论和现实的最新进展表明,比较优势理论的要素基础需要进一步广义化。一个国家要形成自身的比较优势,除了考虑劳动、资本、土地等传统要素,制度、生态环境等要素也不可或缺。基于广义要素的成本可定义为全成本,它是包括生产成本、交易成本、环境成本和代际成本的动态开放系统。全成本构成了一国参与国际分工的比较优势的基础。     

An Analysis of Country Image of Brazil and Its Fresh Fruits: A Two Scales Comparison

The ever-increasing trade openness has raised the importance of the country image construct. Despite the number of articles published on the image of many countries worldwide, little focus has been paid to Brazil so far. The present study is aimed at measuring the country image of Brazil and its fresh fruits by comparing two different scales, one developed by Pisharodi and Parameswaran (1992) and the other by Nebenzahl, Jaffe, and Usunier (2003). The method used was a cross-sectional one, with the survey being characterized as quantitative and involving the application of questionnaires to 223 students of the Royal Agricultural College in England. The scales yielded five and three strong correlations, respectively. The image of Brazil was found to be negative in the former scale, whereas the latter one showed a positive image. The present research has contributed not only to further the discussion on the existing gap in the literature regarding “country image” but also to provide useful information for both marketing professionals and government agencies with the aim of strengthening the image of Brazil.     

The Effective Delivery of Franchisor Services: A Comparison of U.S. and German Support Practices for Franchisees

ABSTRACT

Conventional wisdom suggests that more services offered by franchisors should lead to fewer complaints from franchisees, and that franchisees ought to be better off with additional support provided. We set out to differentiate those services that are truly effective and are perceived as beneficial by franchisees from those that may have little effect or may even be perceived as counterproductive. Our survey targeted franchisors in the U.S. and in Germany, comparing the most mature franchise market globally to one that is relatively young. System disruption was found to be dependent on the maturity of the market, as little differentiation is provided in the very mature U.S. market, but considerable differentiation exists in the younger German market. Also, the size of the system matters, as bigger systems typically provide more services. Finally, different types of services have varying levels of effectiveness in the less mature franchise market of Germany.     

多重交易对贸易效率与规模的影响——兼论贸易平台对促进内需扩大及外贸发展的作用

文章从契约经济理论的视角研究交易模式对交易效率与交易规模的影响。通过对孟韩德.法里斯（M Hand Fares）以赖尔登(Riordan)和威廉姆森（Williamson）模型为基础构建的新交易成本理论标准模型的扩展,建立多重交易情况（多交易对象、重复交易）的交易成本理论模型。该模型显示:多重交易有助于提高贸易效率和扩大贸易规模。文章还研究了多重交易与贸易集聚、贸易集聚与贸易平台的关系。文章最后研究了贸易平台对促进我国内需扩大和外贸发展的积极作用。     

Role of Forgetting in Memory-Based Choice Decisions: A Structural Model

We propose a structural model to investigate the impact of forgetting on consumers' brand choice decisions in frequently purchased products. Forgetting results in consumers imperfectly recalling their prior brand evaluations when making a purchase decision in the category. We conceptualize the imperfect recall by positing that consumers recall their prior evaluations with noise. Based on prior research in the behavioral area, we characterize the extent of forgetting as an increasing and concave function of time. Our framework generates analytical results on the impact of forgetting on consumers' brand evaluations and their consequent purchase behavior. We calibrate our model using scanner panel data for liquid detergents. Furthermore, we obtain insights into the consumers' extent of forgetting in the category, extent of learning, predicted price elasticities and implications on state dependence and habit persistence. Our results underscore the importance of modeling consumers' ability to recall only imperfectly.     

Country of origin and network effects on internationalization: A comparative study of SMEs from an emerging and developed economy

This study examines the internationalization of high technology small and medium enterprises (HTSMEs). It explores how they develop and use networks to penetrate their first foreign market relying on information collected via direct interviews with the CEOs or founders of 58 high technology small firms that operate internationally. It uses mixed methods to discuss the network building mechanisms identified — client–supplier relationships, existing personal contacts, contacts acquired by chance, and contacts acquired through specific strategies. The findings provide the basis for developing propositions for further comparative analyses of the internationalization of HTSMEs based in emerging and developed markets. The study contributes to the literature on networks, internationalization and international entrepreneurship.     

基于马氏距离模型的供应链交易成本判别分析

提出将材料采购中的后向交易成本从材料成本中分离出来,采用与前向交易费用相同的方法进行核算.首先分析其理论依据,其次建立基于马氏距离的判别分析模型,选取参与供应链的典型制造型企业的财务数据进行实证研究,判别结果验证了观点的正确性,为供应链成本核算体系的构建奠定了基础.     

An Empirical Investigation of the Relationship Between Change in Corporate Social Performance and Financial Performance: A Stakeholder Theory Perspective

Stakeholder theory provides a framework for investigating the relationship between corporate social performance (CSP) and corporate financial performance. This relationship is investigated by examining how change in CSP is related to change in financial accounting measures. The findings provide some support for a tenet in stakeholder theory which asserts that the dominant stakeholder group, shareholders, financially benefit when management meets the demands of multiple stakeholders. Specifically, change in CSP was positively associated with growth in sales for the current and subsequent year. This indicates that there are short-term benefits from improving CSP. Return on sales was significantly positively related to change in CSP for the third financial period, indicating that long-term financial benefits may exist when CSP is improved.     

基于H-O模型的外生技术进步与国际贸易分析

在H-O模型的基础上通过几何分析和代数证明,本文分别阐述了在小国情形和大国情形下,出口部门与进口部门的希克斯中性技术进步对一国的生产模式、贸易模式、要素报酬、要素密集度和社会福利的影响。