Destination marketing organization website visitors’ flow experience: an application of Plog’s model of personality

ABSTRACT

This study investigates the relationships among website features (i.e. informativeness, design, and interactivity), flow experience, and the user’s intention to seek and use travel information provided on destination marketing organization (DMO) websites. It incorporates the moderating effects of personality into those relationships. Respondents (n = 433) were asked to visit and explore a DMO website and then to respond as if they were planning to travel to the destination. The results show that three website features relate positively to flow experience and that flow experience contributes to behavioral intention. This study also finds that personality moderates the link between web features (informativeness and interactivity) and flow experience, the implications of which are discussed at the end of the paper.     

How friendly destination websites are for mobiles? A study of destination marketing organizations in the Asia Pacific region

ABSTRACT

The core objectives of this exploratory study are (1) to examine the friendliness of destination websites for mobiles and (2) to profile the features available in different versions of mobile destination websites. Through employing the device emulator testing approach to analyze websites of top destinations in the Asia Pacific region, this study finds that destination marketing organizations in the Asia Pacific region have been optimizing their official websites for mobiles over the past few years. A responsive web design approach is predominantly used by the analyzed destination, and more features are founded to be available in “fully mobile-friendly websites.”     

Do you dare to travel to China? An examination of China's destination image amid the COVID-19

The impact of COVID-19 on destination image is critical for international tourism recovery. This study is conducted focusing on China, the first epicenter of the COVID-19 pandemic, with mixed methods. Drawing on survey data collected from 500 US travelers, the study first examines China's destination image perceptions and travel intention. The results reveal that (1) US respondents have low travel intentions to China amid the pandemic; (2) Destination safety and security is the most influential image factor that leads to the low travel intentions to China. News media is proposed to have significant influence on China's image formation due to the COVID-19. A simple content analysis is conducted on CNN's news and China is found to be tied closely with COVID-19 and most news articles are emotionally negative. Those respondents who follow news outlet websites for COVID-19 view China more negatively and have lower travel intentions.     

The role of travel agents’ ethical concerns when brokering information in the marketing and sale of sustainable tourism

ABSTRACT

Using conservation tourism as a test case, this study explores the role high-end travel agents play in selling sustainable tourism. It examines a niche marketing activity in that process. The study focuses on agents’ consideration of ethics as they act as information brokers between tourists and operators. Data were collected from interviews with agents and analysed using a deductive content analysis based on six overarching concepts and theories on ethical decision-making. The findings emphasize the implicit influence within conservation tourism of tourism's ethical dimensions, whilst identifying many constraints that prevent a full consideration and/or disclosure of ethical concerns in the sales process. Most importantly, agents made assumptions using a false consensus bias about clients' preferences for service over concerns for the environment, and were not prepared to discuss the more sensitive issues surrounding conservation with their clients. A number of recommendations are proposed regarding the need to unpack conservation information, overcome the false consensus bias, and agents’ reluctance to discuss ethics in the sales process. Finally, the findings have broader implications for the development of sustainable tourism, which ultimately will depend on a dialogue of ethical concerns and values within the tourism supply chain between suppliers, brokers and tourists.     

The ‘magic of filter’ effect: Examining value co-destruction of social media photos in destination marketing

Excessive filter processing of social media photos may cause viewers to question the authenticity of the photos. From the value co-destruction perspective, this research examines the effect of photo filtering on consumer perceptions. Study 1 ran content analysis of 2035 social media user posts and identified that destination marketing failure caused by filtered photos is a process involving tourists' negative emotions and multi-stakeholder (including platform, travel blogger, and destination) value co-destruction, represented by a chain relationship mechanism of “stimulation of filtered photos→ negative emotions of tourists→ failure of destination marketing.” Study 2 applied an experimental design and found that filtered photos have a significant effect on tourists' negative emotions, which play a complete mediating role in the relationship between filtered photos and value co-destruction of destination marketing. Additionally, the moderating effect of tourists’ aesthetic and authenticity pursuit in the influence mechanism was partially verified. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.     

Exploring the formation mechanisms of urban residents’ travel behaviour in China: perceptions of travel benefits and travel constraints

ABSTRACT

Previous studies have examined the perceived benefits (PBs) and percveived constraints (PCs) of travel and/or leisure participation, but it remains somewhat unclear how these perceptions influence travel behaviour. Thus, a conceptual model was constructed aimed at describing the effects of PBs and PCs on urban residents’ travel behaviour. Results from 519 urban residents in Changsha, China, revealed that attitude played a mediating role between perceived travel benefits and travel behaviours (TBs), while attitude-expressive behavior (AEBs) acted as a mediator between attitude and TBs. Additionally, PCs were found to have a direct negative influence on TBs and PBs, and PCs positively influenced TBs through constraint negotiation strategies(CNSs). These findings confirm the mediating effect of CNSs on the relationship between PBs, PCs, and TBs, and indicate that there are several basic patterns underlying urban residents’ TBs. Specific implications for practice and theory are discussed.     

It’s in the air: Aroma marketing and affective response in the hotel world

Smell is considered to be the sense that is most closely attached to emotional reactions. This makes scent in the hotel environment an important atmospheric variable to study, because fragrances are expected to increase the likelihood of producing an emotional reaction from consumers. Capitalizing on smell’s ability to cue memories and conjure up emotions, the purpose of this research is to examine the emotional states evoked by various hotel scents in a hotel business in Hong Kong that uses scent throughout its premises. More specifically, this study intends to make a connection between the emotional states evoked by the hotel scents and how hotel businesses can make use of their guests’ emotional responses. Scent marketing is an overlooked subject in hospitality and tourism research.     

Exploring determinants of meeting planners’ commitment to the business relationships with destination management companies

Although there is a demand for research on a business-to-business relationship between meeting planners and destination management companies, the current hospitality and tourism literature is insufficient in its attempt to understand the dynamics of this unique relationship. Recently, in the meeting industry, destination management companies have been recognized to experience a more challenging business environment due to the abundance of online vendor information which activates meeting planners’ disintermediation of destination management company services. To provide more practical implications for these key meeting players, this study urges that the key factor that encourages meeting planners to continue using destination management companies is trust. Therefore, this study examines determinants of the trust–commitment relationship as a means for meeting planners to achieve a more sustainable relationship with destination management companies. Applying and extending social exchange theory, this study also explores the determinants of the future relationship (commitment or termination). Findings of this research will provide the industry with suggestions for their relationship development.     

How would the contextual features of a destination function together with individual factors to enhance tourists’ intention toward ST in Taiwan?

Abstract

Slow travel (ST), which emphasizes deeper experiences via slower transportation modes, has been promoted as an alternative to current practice and a more sustainable form of tourism. With lower GHG emissions being a national environmental goal in Taiwan, ST concepts have been garnering attention. The relationship between the environments of destinations and pro-environmental behavior of tourists has attracted relatively little academic attention. To remedy this, the current research establishes a fairly complete model for incorporating factors at the contextual level into the individual determinants useful in encouraging ST. The goal of this research is to understand how certain predictors directly and interactively influence the choices of tourists toward ST. This study collected 508 validly filled surveys addressing 13 industrial tourist destinations, and applied Hierarchical Linear and Nonlinear Modeling (HLM) analyses. In addition to the individual-level factors, including perceived benefits of tourism experiences and ages of tourists, the design of onsite tourism programs at the contextual level was one of the most influential drivers to encourage visitors’ ST intentions. Included in this research are the insights into how to promote ST and corresponding suggestions for tourism operations within the context of sustainable tourism and destination management.     

Corporate social marketing in tourism: to sleep or not to sleep with the enemy?

ABSTRACT

Social marketing is regarded as an effective consumer-oriented approach to promoting behavioural change and improved well-being for individuals, communities and society. However, its potential for tourism, especially sustainable tourism, remains under-researched. This article examines the utilisation of social marketing by tourism businesses. A search strategy identified 14 behavioural change programmes that involved tourism businesses. Half of these programmes label themselves social marketing; the others tend to be part of corporate social responsibility efforts, using a form of corporate social marketing (CSM). Most programmes seek to encourage pro-environmental behaviours in tourists, tourism businesses and other stakeholders including suppliers. Although tourism businesses can develop social marketing programmes alone, typically they collaborate with public and non-profit agencies as partners and sponsors. The strength of the tie between the promoted behaviour and the sale of a company's product varies considerably. It is suggested that social marketing can make significant contributions to environmentally sustainable tourism. However, this research also suggests that social marketing is not a substitute for, but rather an essential complement to, technological and regulatory approaches to climate change. Changing behaviour is a long process: without a long-term commitment from private sector companies, CSM programmes will fail to achieve behavioural change goals.     

Enhancing employee voice to advance the hospitality organization’s marketing capabilities: A multilevel perspective

Increased pressure to remain competitively viable necessitates that hospitality organizations are responsive to the market. Through a theory of cooperation and competition lens, this study examines how hospitality organizations can enhance their market responsiveness via the mechanism of employee voice. Using multi-level data from 75 U.S. chain restaurants, results show employee-organization goal alignment builds employee efficacy necessary to exhibit effective prosocial voice and fortifies the organization against misaligned employee goals that potentially lead to ineffective, defensive, or acquiescent, voice behavior. At the restaurant level, unit level prosocial voice had a positive impact on the organization’s marketing capabilities through the support of a participatory organizational climate, providing evidence that enhancing employee voice is a viable marketing strategy to advance marketing capabilities.     

What factors influence Generation Y’s employee retention in the hospitality industry?: An internal marketing approach

Individuals from Generation Y are entering into the hospitality job market, but little is known about their intention to remain in the hospitality business. The purpose of this study was to examine what factors affect a Generation Y employee’s intention to remain with a hospitality company with respect to internal marketing tactics. Qualtrics, an online survey service company, was used to distribute and collect a self-administered questionnaire survey. A theoretically proposed model was tested using structural equation modeling. The results of this study indicated that “work environment” significantly influence Generation Y employees’ job satisfaction, followed by “empowerment,” “pay,” and “relationships with managers,” which in turn, influences “employee commitment” and “intention to remain in hospitality business.” The implications of the study are discussed.     

Efficacy of the theory of communication competence and personality traits in predicting tour guides’ income

ABSTRACT

The purpose of this study was to explain the extent to which communication competencies and personality types influence tour guides’ performances, as measured by two livelihood indicators: earned tips and overall income. Data were collected from a sample of 387 professional tour guides via self-report survey. The study results suggest that some verbal and non-verbal communication competencies play a role in predicting tips earned. Moreover, the study has found that three of the Big Five personality traits are useful predictors of tips and general income. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed within the realm of Theory of Communication Competence and Big Five Personality Traits.     

Assessing recreation carrying capacity of the environment attributes based on visitors’ willingness to pay

Recreation carrying capacity (RCC) is one of the most important indictors used in measuring the usage limits for the forest park resources. However, the consensus has not been reached with respect to the RCC’s content and its measuring metrics. In this paper, we attempt to establish a new RCC theoretical framework based on the demand theory of the tourism product characteristics. In the process, the choice experiment and orthogonal design methods are used in questionnaire designs and the conditional Logit model is used for parameter estimates. More than 700 park visitors are surveyed for data collection at the Shenyang National Forest park of Liaoning province in China. The primary park attributes being considered encompass vegetation, coverage, water quality, number of rubbish on the park trail path, admission fees, and congestion. The carrying capacity threshold for each specific attribute is identified.     

How to win the consumer’s heart? Exploring appraisal determinants of consumer pre-consumption emotions

Emotions are key drivers of consumption in the tourism and hospitality sector. Therefore, advancing our understanding of the determinants of consumer emotions is critical for tourism and hospitality marketers to effectively influence consumer affect-driven consumption behavior. However, research on the determinants of pre-consumption emotions remains under-explored. This study aims to fill the research gap and proposes a theoretical framework to explain affect-driven behavior. Grounded on the cognitive appraisal theory of emotions, we hypothesize that marketing stimuli are personally appraised based on several dimensions such as novelty and goal relevance. These appraisal dimensions determine the elicitation of positive emotions, leading to behavioral intentions. A total of 655 participants were recruited for an empirical study to test this framework in the context of a tourism event experience. We use an experimental research design to examine consumer appraisals, emotions and behavioral intentions in four conditions: two marketing visual formats (poster vs. video) over two delivery channels (advertising vs. e-word-of-mouth). Research outcomes support the theoretical framework of consumer affect-driven behavior, suggesting that the elicitation of positive emotions beneficially guides consumer behavior in goal striving and novelty seeking. Based on this, emotion-focused marketing implications are recommended, including goal-based segmentation, goal-relevant content development and the use of eWOM as an emotion-enhancing message delivery channel.     

Effects of the event and its destination image on sport tourists’ attachment and loyalty to a destination: the cases of the Chinese and U.S. Formula One Grand Prix

ABSTRACT

We aim to determine the antecedents of sport tourists’ loyalty toward both the event and destination. Data were collected from both the 2017 Chinese Grand Prix (n?=?361) and the 2017 U.S. Grand Prix (n?=?351). Then, the data were analyzed by using confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling. The results showed the image associated with the hosting destination and the event is positively related to the sport tourists’ attachment and loyalty. The outcome may be utilized in planning a recurring sport event that achieves higher sport tourist destination loyalty.     

Can craft beverages shape a destination’s image? A cognitive intervention to measure pisco-related resources on conative image

Assessing potential tourists' perceptions is vital to build a destination image and brand capable to attract new and repeated visitors. The increasing popularity of craft beverage tourism in recent years is incentivizing destinations to (re)design their offerings and (re)brand their image based on their craft beverages. This study investigated how the image of an emerging craft beverage tourism destination (Ica, Peru) is formed among potential tourists by inducing cognitive image (knowledge presented through picture-text dyads) of Ica's iconic resources, staple craft beverage (pisco), and resources associated with its production. Additionally, it measured the impact of local resources' characteristics, affective image, and personal characteristics on conative image (interest to visit and willingness to recommend) at different intervention stages. Results indicate that pisco-related resources are powerful enough to motivate travel, and that the characteristics of a mix of resources should be combined with beverage-specific information when developing branding strategies for craft beverage tourism destinations.     

‘What’s the Story in Balamory?’: The Impacts of a Children’s TV Programme on Small Tourism Enterprises on the Isle of Mull,Scotland

Film- and television-induced tourism effects have been witnessed in a number of locations world-wide, creating a range of positive and negative impacts for host communities and environments. The children’s television programme Balamory, filmed on the Isle of Mull, Scotland, has created a new tourism phenomenon for the island, leading to concern that Mull’s reputation as a green destination for the discerning might be displaced by a less desirable form of tourism. Through a questionnaire survey of tourism businesses on Mull, this paper explores the perceptions of television-induced tourism and the effect of Balamory on business activity during the 2003 season, exploring customer numbers, spending, turnover and profitability, along with attitudes to the new visitors. The research also explores the implications for sustainable tourism development, particularly recognising the limited life-span of film- and television-induced tourism and issues relating to displacement of traditional markets, with an emphasis on sustaining tourism as a means of generating revenue to support a rural island community.     

The effect of information presentation modes on tourists’ responses in Internet marketing: the moderating role of emotions

In order to enhance our understanding of the effectiveness of information transmission through virtual reality (VR), this study used a modified stimulus–organism–response framework to examine the relationships between information presentation modes (VR versus picture), emotions (pleasure and arousal), and tourists’ responses, namely attention, interest, desire, and action (AIDA) in the context of Internet tourism marketing. Multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) and multivariate analysis of covariance (MANCOVA) were employed to analyze data gathered from 184 respondents participating in a factorial experimental design. The results indicated that compared with the picture mode, the VR mode had superior effects on tourists’ responses, but these superior effects were moderated by arousal. High-arousal tourists had stronger AIDA responses in the VR mode than in the picture mode. However, the stronger effects of the VR mode on tourists’ AIDA responses disappeared in the low-arousal group. The findings of this study provide several important theoretical and practical implications for Internet tourism marketing.     

Understanding tourists’ reactance to the threat of a loss of freedom to travel due to climate change: a new alternative approach to encouraging nuanced behavioural change

This article proposes that reactance theory can be used to better understand how tourists’ perceptions of climate change affect their travel decisions. Reactance theory explains how individuals value their perceived freedom to make choices, and why they react negatively to any threats to their freedom. We study the psychological consequences of threatening tourist's freedoms, using a range of projective techniques: directly, using photo-expression, and indirectly, through collage, photo-interviewing and scenarios. We find that reactance theory helps to explain the extent of travel to two destinations: Svalbard and Venice, providing a nuanced understanding of how travellers restore their freedom to travel through three incremental stages: denying the climate change threat, reducing tensions arising from travel and heightening demand particularly for the most visibly threatened destinations. The theory suggests a fourth stage, helplessness, reached when consumers dismiss the value of destinations once they can no longer be enjoyed, but for which we, as yet, have no data. Reactance theory questions the validity of awareness-raising campaigns as behavioural change vehicles, provides alternative explanations of why the most self-proclaimed, environmentally aware individuals travel frequently, and helps identify nuanced, socially acceptable forms of sustainability marketing, capable of reducing resistance to change.