Valuing Health Impacts from Air Pollution in Europe

Health impacts make up asignificant portion of the damage costs fromair pollution. In lack of European valuationstudies on morbidity impacts, cost-benefitanalyses, transport and energy externalitystudies, and green accounting exercises inEurope have all used values from more than tenyear old US valuation studies. Results from anew Contingent Valuation study, using animproved version of the survey design of themost transferred US morbidity study, show thatrespiratory symptom days and asthma attacks arevalued lower in Norway than in the US.Correction were made for differences inpurchase power between the two countries, butthe US values are still expressed in 1986dollar values; indicating that the differencebetween the two estimates could be even higher.Thus, the practise of transferring US estimatesand only adjusting the values with the consumerprice index could lead to highly biased valuesin the Norwegian case. The difference betweenthe US and Norwegian values can be explained byimproved CV survey and sample design, differentpreferences in Norway compared to the US, anddifferent public health care systems. We do notknow if we can generalise the results from thisNorwegian study to the rest of Europe, but thestudy clearly illustrates the uncertainty intransferring results from one country toanother.     

Flows of Air Pollution,Ill Health and Welfare

We provide a theoretical framework for measuring welfare when pollution influences economic growth by impairing health and driving up defensive medical expenditures. We demonstrate the usefulness of our framework in practice by applying it to data from Swedish valuation studies designed according to the accounting principles suggested here. We estimate that the negative health effects of nitrogen dioxide emissions amount to 0.6% of GDP in Sweden. We also show that a corrective Pigouvian tax should internalize the direct disutility, reduced labor productivity, and increased healthcare expenditures caused by pollution. According to our calculations, harmful health impacts alone (excluding ecosystem effects) justify 65% of the current Swedish tax on nitrogen dioxide.      

雾霾污染、政府治理与经济高质量发展

本文使用2004—2013年中国286个地级及以上城市PM2.5浓度这一独特的雾霾数据,采用劳动生产率来度量经济发展质量,系统考察了雾霾污染对中国经济发展质量的影响及其传导机制,并创新性地选取能够控制雾霾污染空间溢出效应的空气流动系数以及能够全面度量地方政府环境政策和治理力度的政府环境治理指标作为减缓雾霾污染变量内生性的两个工具变量,在两阶段最小二乘的统一框架内估计了政府环境治理的减霾效果和对中国经济发展质量的影响。研究发现:雾霾污染显著降低了中国经济发展质量;城市化与人力资本是雾霾污染影响中国经济发展质量的两个重要传导渠道;政府环境治理能够有效降低雾霾污染从而促进经济发展质量的提升;雾霾污染对大中城市经济发展质量的负面影响显著高于小城市,且随时间推移雾霾污染的负面效应越来越显著。本文的政策启示是,经济发展质量的提高是经济发展方式转变的前提,政府治霾有助于提升大气环境和经济发展质量,助推中国经济的高质量发展。     

空气污染治理中企业不合作问题的经济学研究

空气污染己成为社会各界所关注的一个热点问题。政府制定的各种环保法规只有得到企业有效配合才能实现其环保目的。但是政府在实施各种环保法规时所遇到的一个难题是企业不合作问题(不投资购买治污设备)。本文提出了一个能够有效解决企业不合作问题的税收-补贴管制机制,并证明了实施该管制能够得到子博弈最优均衡唯一解:所有企业均会选择合作策略。     

我国经济增长与大气污染物排放的关系——基于分省面板数据的经验研究

本文应用1998-2004年期间我国30个省(市、自治区)的面板数据,通过综合简化型模型,研究了3种大气污染物和经济增长之间的关系.实证研究发现在3种大气污染物与经济增长之间不存在倒U型环境库兹涅茨曲线.二氧化硫排放与经济增长之间呈倒N型曲线,与多数研究结果不相符;同时,第二产业比重、经济增长速度、单位GDP能耗和环境政策强度四个解释变量总体上对3个大气污染物的排放具有显著影响,并包含明确的政策含义.     

Analysis of Air Pollution Impact Factors in China: A MIMIC Modeling Approach

In this study, we investigate the impact factors on air pollution in terms of CO2, SO2 and NOx emissions simultaneously in China and compare changes in air pollution across provinces from 1998 to 2011 using a Multiple Indicators and Multiple Causes Model (MIMIC) within a Structural Equation Model (SEM) framework. Our findings reveal that GDP per capita and total population have the largest impacts on air pollution, followed by energy intensity, foreign direct investment, population density, and industrialization. The results also reveal that the inverted U-shaped Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) hypothesis exists in China. Our findings also demonstrate that Shandong, Jiangxi and Liaoning are the top three provinces with the most deteriorated air quality while Xinjiang, Fujian and Ningxia are with the best. These results not only contribute to advancing the existing literature, but also merit particular attention from policy-makers in China.     

Air Pollution and Sick-leaves

During the last decade an increasing amount of studies have investigatedthe relationship between air pollution and human health effects. In thisstudy we investigate how these effects in turn induce reduced labourproductivity in terms of sick-leaves, which is an important factor inassessment of air pollution costs in urban areas. For this purpose weemploy a logit model along with data on sick-leaves from a large office inOslo and different air pollutants. Our results indicate that sick-leaves aresignificantly associated with particulate matter (PM₁₀), while theassociations with SO₂ and NO₂, are more ambiguous. We also tryto estimate the induced social costs in terms of lost labour productivity andincreased governmental expenditures, although these estimates are moreuncertain.     

Estimating Mortality and Economic Costs of Particulate Air Pollution in Developing Countries: The Case of Nigeria

The value of statistical life is an essential parameter used in ascribing monetary values to the mortality costs of air pollution in health risk analyses. However, this willingness to pay estimate is virtually non-existent for most developing countries. In the absence of local estimates, two major benefit transfer approaches lend themselves to the estimation of the value of statistical life: the value transfer method and the meta-regression analysis. Using Nigeria as a sample country, we find that the latter method is better tailored than the former for incorporating many characteristics that vary between study sites and policy sites into its benefit transfer application. It is therefore likely to provide more accurate value of statistical life predictions for very low-income countries. Employing the meta-regression method, we find Nigeria’s value of statistical life estimate to be $489,000. Combining this estimate with dose response functions from the epidemiological literature, it follows that if Nigeria had mitigated its 2006 particulate air pollution to the World Health Organisation standards, it could have avoided at least 58,000 premature deaths and recorded an avoided mortality related welfare loss of about $28 billion or 19 % of the nation’s GDP for that year.     

洛杉矶的雾霾治理及其启示

1943年美国发生了著名的"洛杉矶雾霾"事件,直到20世纪70年代,该市区还被称为"美国烟雾城"。洛杉矶雾霾夏天主要起因于臭氧,冬天主要是源于细微颗粒物等。洛杉矶在治理雾霾方面的主要做法包括立法、排污许可证制度、推广先进环保技术、建立排污交易机制和成立跨部门专门机构等,其治理工作取得了明显成效:2012年,加州达到"不健康空气"水平的日子比2000年减少了约74%。我国治理雾霾,应更加重视空气污染的长期性预测分析,引入市场机制,成立跨地区的空气污染治理机构,同时,加强中美间环保科技的国际合作。     

空气污染对城市外来劳动力居留意愿的影响研究

利用全球PM2.5卫星栅格数据、2017年全国流动人口动态监测调查数据并匹配287个地级及以上城市面板数据构建Probit模型研究了空气污染对中国城市外来劳动力居留意愿的影响。结果表明:空气污染对居留意愿产生了显著的负面影响;污染所导致的居留意愿下降与预期收入增加之间存在一定的替代关系;居留意愿受污染影响的程度在不同个体特征间存在明显差异,男性、已婚、非农户口、基本健康、年龄越大、教育水平越高,居留意愿对空气污染的敏感度越高。提升环境质量对中国城市外来劳动力就业选址和定居的吸引力,应从重视环境因素在人才政策中的作用,加大对环境污染对健康影响的研究力度和知识普及力度,推进环境基本公共服务均等化等方面着力加强。     

中国的环境污染与经济增长

中国经济经历三十多年高速增长,但环境质量也日趋恶化。本文利用112座城市在2003—2010年间的大气污染浓度数据,考察我国经济增长和环境污染之间的关系。与以往研究不同的是,基于传统的环境库兹涅茨曲线模型,我们发现所有的大气污染浓度指标都呈现出"U形"曲线关系。但是在考虑了每个城市特定的时间趋势变量后,高增长并不一定会导致高污染。最后,通过对同一污染物的排放数据和大气浓度数据进行对比分析,发现两者的回归结果截然相反。     

代际货币转移对中国农村老年人卫生服务利用的影响研究

采用Andersen卫生服务利用行为模型,研究了净货币转移对中国农村老年人门诊服务利用数量的作用。采用多级分层的方法调查老年人(1050例),研究可利用资源和所需因素之间的相互作用,同时利用泊松回归对主效应和交互效应进行研究。净货币转移与门诊服务利用数量并不相关,但净货币转移与自评健康之间的交互作用的确存在。自评健康状况差或一般的老年人,以及获得较多净货币转移的老年人,使用门诊服务更为频繁。老年人对医疗服务的利用主要与健康需求有关。建议提供与支付能力相当的医疗保险,加强对农村老年人的公共援助。     

Health Damage of Air Pollution: An Estimate of a Dose–Response Relationship for the Netherlands

This paper estimates the dose-response relationship between air pollution and the number of work loss days for the Netherlands. The study is based on illness data (work loss days) for the Dutch labour population and average year concentrations of air pollution in 29 districts. The dose-response relationship has been estimated by means of two different techniques: the ordinary least squares method (OLS) and the one-way fixed-effects method (OWFEM), which we consider to be more adequate. In general health effects are much smaller when OWFEM is applied than if OLS is used. With OWFEM a significant relationship is found between sulphate aerosol (SO₄), ammonia (NH₃) and the number of work loss days (WLDs). Particulates (TSP), O₃ and SO₂ have no significant effect on the number of WLDs. These results differ from those obtained in studies in the United States, which indicate that particulates (TSP) and other small particles, ozone (O₃) and to a lesser extent SO₄ and SO₂ significantly influence the number of WLDs.     

京津冀治理大气污染的财政金融政策协同配合

京津冀协同发展的根本取向是低碳绿色发展。以治理大气污染为导向,以能源革命为保障条件,带动经济社会全面、协调、持续发展,是京津冀协同发展的客观要求。治理京津冀大气污染,需要按照节能减排目标,淘汰落后产能,改造提升产业结构,调整优化能源结构,提高能源利用效率,控制和减少污染物排放。实现“治污带动发展,发展促进治污”的京津冀协同发展,不仅需要技术支持,更需要资金支持。在多渠道资金投入保障机制方面,必须搞好财政金融政策协同配合,在注重发挥财政政策引导能力和支持作用的同时,更加注重发挥市场的决定作用,发挥多层次资本市场融资功能,多渠道引导金融机构、实体企业、社会资金,积极投入到节能减排和产业结构改造升级中,为治理京津冀大气污染,实现京津冀协同发展提供相应的资金保障。     

日本治理大气污染的主要做法及其启示

通过分析、阐述日本治理人为大气污染源的具体做法和措施,以及介绍日本大气质量监测管理体系和信息发布睛况,可以了解到：日本政府坚持污染治理原则,严格执法,加强技术开发,推动全社会共同参与,实现了污染治理和经济增长的同步发展。日本治理大气污染的成功经验,值得借鉴和吸收。     

控制环境污染的经济学分析

可持续发展是21世纪的一个永恒主题,而环境可持续发展是可持续发展的一个核心内容,不控制环境污染,就不可能达到可持续发展。本文对污染项目分成两类,每类采用不同的方法,应用经济学的原理进行了分析。     

Implementing QALYs in the Analysis of Air Pollution Regulations

In recent years, there has been growing interest in cost-effectiveness analysis for environmental regulations using quality-adjusted life years as the measure of effectiveness. This paper explores the implications of the QALY approach for measuring the impacts of air pollution regulations, with an example using the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency’s Heavy Duty Engine/Diesel Fuel regulations. The paper also examines the issues surrounding the potential use of QALY measures in cost-benefit analysis for air pollution regulations. Key findings are that, compared with a cost-benefit approach, the QALY framework gives more weight to reductions in incidence of chronic disease relative to reductions in premature mortality risk, especially when the mortality risk reductions occur in older populations. In addition, use of monetized QALYs in cost-benefit analysis is not recommended, due to fundamental differences in the theoretical grounding of the different measures. However, application of monetized QALYs based on age-specific willingness to pay (WTP) for mortality risk reductions gives very similar results to typical cost-benefit analysis for mortality risk reductions, as opposed to using values for QALYs based on non-age specific WTP. The paper concludes that in cases where mortality provide the majority of a regulation’s impacts, QALY based cost-effectiveness analysis and WTP based cost-benefit analysis may not differ in their conclusions. However, in cases where morbidity or non-health outcomes are significant, cost-effectiveness and cost-benefit analysis may result in different evaulations of the efficiency of the regulation.     

Reconsidering the Impact of the Environment on Long-run Growth when Pollution Influences Health and Agents have a Finite-lifetime

Using an overlapping generation model à la Blanchard (1985, J Polit Econ 93:223–247) with human capital accumulation, we demonstrate that the influence of the environment on optimal growth in the long-run may be explained by the detrimental effect of pollution on life expectancy. We also show that, in such a case, greener preferences are growth- and welfare-improving in the long-run even if the ability of the agents to learn is independent of pollution and utility is additively separable. Finally, we establish that a minimum environmental policy is required to obtain a sustainable equilibrium in the market economy and that it is possible to implement a win–win environmental policy.