FINANCIAL INNOVATION AND THE DEMAND FOR MONEY: EVIDENCE FROM THE PHILIPPINES

This paper tests whether financial innovations in the Philippines distorted the long-run relation between real money balances, income and interest rates. Using data for the monetary base, M1 and M3 over the period 1980–1998, we cannot reject the hypothesis that there does not exist a standard money demand relation between M1 and M3, real income and interest rates. However, when we allow for the impact of financial innovations, this finding is reversed for M1. Estimates of ECM models for these measures also show that financial innovations impacted real money balances for M1, but not M3. This evidence supports the Philippine central bank's choice of a monetary aggregate as its policy instrument to achieve its policy objectives. [E41, E58]     

A money demand system for German M3

A small macroeconomic model is constructed starting from a German money demand relation for M3 based on quarterly, seasonally unadjusted data for the period from 1976 to 1996. In contrast to previous studies we build a vector error correction model for M3, GNP, an inflation rate and an interest rate spread variable to represent opportunity costs of holding money. Furthermore, import price inflation is added as an exogenous variable. The model is used to analyze the relation between money growth and inflation by means of an impulse response analysis.We thank Gerd Hansen for soliciting two anonymous referee reports on an earlier version of this article and thereby helping in the editorial process for this volume. We are grateful to him, Timo Teräsvirta, Kirstin Hubrich and the two referees for comments that helped us to improve our paper. Financial support was provided by the DFG, Sonderforschungsbereich 373.     

The money-age distribution: Empirical facts and the limits of three monetary models

The money-age distribution is hump-shaped for the US post-war economy. There is no clear-cut relation between the variation of money holdings within generations and age. Furthermore, money is found to be only weakly correlated with both income and wealth. We analyze three motives for money demand in an overlapping generations setup in order to explain these observations: (1) money-in-the-utility, (2) an economy with costly credit service, and (3) limited-participation. All three models are consistent with the hump-shaped relation between average money holdings and age, yet they predict a much closer association between money holdings, income, wealth, and age than we find in the data. Only the limited-participation model partly replicates the low bivariate correlation between money and income as well as between money and interest-bearing assets. None of the three models satisfactorily explains these stylized facts.     

A causal caveat in the Australian money/income relation

The nature of Australian causal relations between money and nominal income and money and real income is examined. Like other recent studies in the area causality is in the sense of Granger (1969). Unlike other studies, causality conclusions are based on both a within-and post-sample analysis. This is motivated by Granger's(1980) recent suggestions regarding causality detection. Monetary growth is found to lead both real and nominal income growth by six months. Surprisingly, the post-sample forecasting analysis suggests real income rather than nominal income as the more relevant causal variable as far as monetary growth is concerned. The identified lag here is fifteen months.     

Agricultural and monetary shocks before the great depression: A graph-theoretic causal investigation

This paper uses graph-theoretic methods to investigate the causal relationships between agriculture, money, interest rates, prices, and real GDP in 12 countries during the years 1869–1929. We find that agricultural production directly and indirectly causes real GDP in two-thirds of the cases. Monetary shocks also play an important causal role in about half the cases, but unlike agriculture, the causal links are usually indirect through other variables to real GDP. The direct causal link between money and prices is also particularly strong. Between 1869 and 1929, money causes prices in nearly all of the countries in the sample.     

Revisiting the US money demand function: an application of the Lagrange multiplier structural break unit root test and the bounds test for a long-run relationship

In this article, we examine the issue of a levels relationship and stability of the US money demand function over the period 1959:01 to 2004:02. We use the Lagrange multiplier structural break unit root test and the bounds testing approach to a long-run relationship in levels of the variables, namely real money demand, nominal interest rate and real income. We find greater evidence for a long-run relationship in levels and stability of the US money demand function when we use M2 as a proxy for money demand. However, we find little evidence for a long-run relationship between M1 and M2 with their determinants for the recent period, spanning the last decade or so.     

Causal relationships among economic aggregates in China

Using China's macro data from 1952 to 1989, the stationarity and causality tests to two types of economic aggregates are applied. The first type relates to the conventional money, income and consumption relationship; and the other is associated with the interest rate, money and investment/income relationship as embodied in a financial repression model. Stationarity test results show that a different direction of causality exists when different measurement of price is used. A causal relationship between interest rate, money and investment/income is also found.     

Stock prices and long-run demand for money: evidence from Malaysia

This paper investigates the money demand function for Malaysia in the 1971-1996 period using the multivariate cointegration and error correction model methodology. The results suggest that a stable long-run relationship exist between real M2, the interest rate differential, income and stock prices. Stock prices have a significant negative substitute effect on long-run as well as short-run broad-money demand (M2) and its omission can lead to serious misspecification in the money demand function. The analysis from the vector error correction model (VECM) and the Toda & Yamamoto (1995) causality tests find that money is endogenous and that there is at least a unidirectional relationship between stock prices and real M2. Stock prices Granger cause real M2 indirectly through income between interest rates and stock prices and stock prices and money stock. This paper comes to the conclusion that due to the endogeneity of money, M2 cannot be completely controlled by Malaysia's central bank. Therefore, in formulating future monetary policy, the response of money demand to stock prices should be considered.     

Time Aggregation and the Money-Real GDP Relationship

This paper investigates the influence of temporal aggregation and systematic sampling on conclusions about the money-output relationship. We find that a causal relationship from M2 to real output is more likely detected using systematic sampling rather than temporal aggregation. Systematic sampled M2 has greater variation concentrated at business cycle frequencies, and this frequency band is important in explaining movements in output. In the case of M1, we find that temporal aggregation introduces a spurious causal relationship, and that the relationship between M1 and output is not stable. We find little evidence that base money or M3 help predict output.     

中国的M_2/GDP(1980—2000):趋势、水平和影响因素

M2 GDP蕴涵了货币需求与国民收入之间的函数关系 ,其水平及变动由货币需求决定。 1 980— 2 0 0 0年间 ,中国的M2 GDP呈上升趋势 ,反映出同期货币需求水平不断上升的现实。除长期走势之外 ,中国的M2 GDP还呈逆周期变动趋势 ,原因在于由谨慎动机引起的货币需求具有逆周期波动的特点。从世界范围内来看 ,中国属于M2 GDP比较高的国家 (地区 )之一 ,但国别比较表明各国 (地区 )并不存在一个标准水平。中国的M2 GDP 2 0年来快速上升 ,从货币层面来看 ,其原因是准货币 GDP快速上升 ;从经济层面来看 ,其原因是 :货币化和居民储蓄存款的投资性质、银行等金融机构金融工具单一、金融市场不发达、银行不良资产比率高。由于M2 GDP水平是由货币需求因素决定的 ,因而不能靠压低货币供应的办法来遏止其上升。     

How stable is the demand for money in Greece?

Abstract

The cointegration technique is now a common method of estimating any money demand function. Numerous studies that applied this technique to estimate the money demand function in Greece, interpreted their finding of cointegration as a sign of stable money demand. In this paper, after incorporating CUSUM and CUSUMSQ tests into cointegration analysis, we show that even though M1 and M2 monetary aggregates are cointegrated with income and interest rate, the M2 money demand function is unstable while M1 is stable.     

Die Entwicklung des österreichischen Volkseinkommens und seiner Hauptkomponenten 1956 bis 1973

Summary The study ist based on the work of M. Kalecki who anticipated the main elements of the Keynesian theory by constructing a dynamic modell of business cycles. Kalecki's theory includes i.a. a theory of profits, saving, income distribution and investment decisions. Until he died in 1970 Kalecki never ceased in his endeavour to adapt his intuition to the new questions posed by the postwar developments in the industrialised capitalist countries. This led him to develop a theory of growth that incorporated the problems of effective demand; he succeeded in making his theory operational in the field of empirical economic analysis.The authors of the study apply Kalecki's method to data on the Austrian GNP and its main components during 1955–1973. (Mr. Szeworski, while being one of Kalecki's assistants in the sixties, applied the analytical method to an investigation of the economic development in some of the most important capitalist economies together with Kalecki.)Chapter 1. represents an introduction into the analytical method and its foundation in Kalecki's work. At first we show how to distinguish that part of production which is subject to the laws of motion of a capitalist economy more precisely than is usual from the part which is not. This serves to open the way to a better understanding of the influences of government activities. With the same intention taxes are divided into consumption-diminishing and accumulation-absorbing taxes. All this results in a modified concept of GNP, in volume as well as in arrangement.Chapter 2. investigates the long-term development of the Austrian economy; it makes evident its chief characteristics and discusses possible reasons emphasizing the importance of foreign trade. An examination of the changes in the main components of GNP leads us to observe an increase in the importance of governmental intervention. Finally, income distribution is shown to tend towards increasing polarisation — which means increasing shares of corporate profits and income of employees in the national income.     

USE OF THE MONEY SUPPLY IN THE CONDUCT OF JAPAN'S MONETARY POLICY: RE‐EXAMINING THE TIME‐SERIES EVIDENCE*

This paper re‐examines whether the money supply (M2 + CDs) can predict future economic activity in Japan, using recent data to the end of 2003. I find that the linkage between M2 and income or prices has largely disappeared since the late 1990s. Evidence suggests that (i) time deposit behaviour is primarily responsible for the breakdown in the M2–income relationship; (ii) bank loans also lost their predictive content in the late 1990s; and (iii) there has been a close link between time deposits and bank loans. Non‐performing loans problems and ongoing restructuring may be root causes of these findings.     

Globalization,Financial Liberalization and the Behavior of the Long Run Money Demand in the Bangladesh Economy

ABSTRACT

The paper estimates the long run demand for money function in the Bangladesh economy using cointegration and the Vector Error Correction Modeling (VECM) technique. The cointegration results suggest that although the process of globalization has shown no significant impact on money demand by the fact that the foreign interest rate is seen as statistically not significant, the financial liberalization has an important impact, reflected in the statistically significant role of domestic interest rate, in influencing both M1 and M2 money demand. An estimate of VECMs also reveals the fact that the short run speed of adjustment is moderately influenced by the financial reform measures to establish the long run relation between money balances, income and domestic interest rates. The phenomenon of credit constraint in the context of a developing country has shown no significant role in influencing money demand, which may imply that the stage of financial development is getting higher level in the Bangladesh economy. The existence of exchange rate depreciation in the cointegration relation with the expected sign suggests that currency substitution is now effective in the monetary sector and, therefore, its impact should be considered in the Bangladesh monetary policy matrix.     

(When) Should cointegrating regressions be detrended? The case of a German money demand function

If an economic relationship is superimposed by a linear time trend, the regression without detrending is misspecified. The estimators of such a regression do not converge to the true parameter values. First, the asymptotic limit arising from such misspecified regressions is characterized. Second, we observe with data before 1975 a significant time trend but no cointegrating relation between real money (M1), income and a long-term interest rate. The price level as a significant omitted variable is considered as an economic explanation for this feature. We find a price elasiticity larger than one. Third, with data after the breakdown of Bretton Woods (and the beginning of monetary targeting by the Bundesbank), real money, income and the interest rate alone are cointegrated. The long-run estimates seem to be fairly stable with data after the German union provided a step dummy accounts for a break in the mean. First version received: November 1996/final version received: June 1998     

Causality testing and sensitivity to detrending: The money-income relationship revisited

The money-income causal relationship is examined using the Hsiao (1979) causal testing method for alternative definitions of money and different detrending transformations. The results for Barbadian data suggest that each detrending transformation will induce different lag specifications in the causal regressions and that the implied causal directions are sensitive to both the definition of money and the detrending technique used. An unambiguous result, based on an examination of the components of money, is that quasi-money Granger-causes income. A recommendation of the paper is that tests for unit roots be used prior to performing the causality tests.     

Money and prices: U.S. Data 1869–1914 (A study with directed graphs)

This paper reconsiders empirical evidence on relationships among money, income, nominal prices, and wheat prices. Error correction and directed acyclic graphs are used to study both lagged and contemporaneous relations in late 19^th and early 20^th century U.S. data. We summarize evidence supporting the view that money was a causal actor in price movement in this period. In the long run (at a five year horizon), over twenty percent of the movement in price is explained by earlier movements in money supply; whereas, wheat price accounts for less than ten percent of this movement. There is also evidence that money supply was not exogenous, as it was determined, in contemporaneous time, by movements in the general price level and income. About forty percent of the variation in money is explained by current or lagged prices and income. There remains considerable uncertainty with respect to role of wheat prices in this period. Innovations in wheat price explain over twenty five percent of the uncertainty in real income at the five year forecast horizon – suggesting wheat price as either causal or proxying for more fundamental causal forces in the U.S. economy over our period of analysis. First version received: December 1999/Final version received: February 2001     

Money,Income and Causality: Korea and Japan

Clearly understanding the true causal relationships among macroeconomic variables is essential for model specification and the selection of policy variables. The purpose of this comparative study is to analyze the casual relationships among macroeconomic variables—more specifically, between money and income in Korea and Japan. Empirical findings of two countries show the casual relationships between money and income which are different from each other and inconsistent with Mundell's suggestions. However, these inconsistencies might be explained theoretically through the different economic structures and situations of each country. [200]     

A farewell to critical junctures: Sorting out long-run causality of income and democracy

We consider the empirical relevance of two opposing hypotheses on the causality between income and democracy: The Democratic Transition hypothesis claims that rising incomes cause a transition to democracy, whereas the Critical Junctures hypothesis denies this causal relation. Our empirical strategy is motivated by Unified Growth Theory, which hypothesizes that the present international income differences have roots in the prehistoric past. Thus, we use prehistoric measures of biogeography as instruments for modern income levels, and find a large long-run causal effect of income on the degree of democracy. This result rejects the Critical Junctures hypothesis, which is an important part of the Primacy of Institutions view.     

Fiscal and Monetary Policies in a Transactions‐Based Endogenous Growth Model with Imperfect Competition

This paper's model is capable of explaining the empirical evidence on the mixed growth‐rate effects of fiscal and monetary policies and a nonlinear inflation–growth relation. When monopoly power in the product market is strong/weak, an increase in the money growth rate or the income tax rate promotes/reduces the output growth rate through lowering/raising the equilibrium gross markup and increasing/reducing the net rate of return on capital. The fact that money can generate a positive growth rate effect allows for the appearance of a nonlinear inflation–growth relation. Such a nonlinear relation cannot be caused by changes in the income tax rate.