If we label it, will they care? The effect of GM-ingredient labelling on consumer responses

More than 60% of foods in North American supermarkets contain GM ingredients. While North American consumers seem less concerned about GM foods than Europeans and Japanese, many consumer activists argue that consumers have a “right to know” if what they eat has GM ingredients. Will informative labelling of GM foods lead to major shifts in buying patterns? An experimental study found minimal effects of GM labelling overall but significant differential reactions to GM-labelled products across consumers with differing levels of consumer activism, perceived benefits of genetic engineering, and interest in novel foods with consumer benefits.     

The Biotechnology Communication Paradox: Experimental Evidence and the Need for a New Strategy

In the past, communication strategies aimed at facilitating consumer acceptance of genetically modified foods have focused on technology-driven, top-down practices. The utility of these practices in influencing the extent to which consumers accept specific GM foods was tested in attitude change experiments involving 1655 consumers from Denmark, Germany, Italy, and the UK. Different information strategies were tested against a control group for their ability to change consumer attitudes. No attitude change occurred. Rather, results indicate that all strategies had a uniform attitude activation effect that significantly decreased consumers' preferences for GM foods as compared to the control group. The discussion focuses on why technology-driven information strategies have failed to convince consumers of the merits of GM foods, and relates these results to recent changes in consumer policy that are aimed at engaging consumers in the debate about innovation processes rather than attempting to align their views with those held by expert communities.     

Genetically modified foods: Consumer awareness,opinions and attitudes in selected EU countries

The dynamic development of biotechnology in recent years has raised serious public concerns about the possible risks arising from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The aim of this study was to investigate consumer opinions regarding genetically modified (GM) foods. The research also aimed at verifying the differences in the attitudes of respondents from two, relatively culturally diverse research sites. To obtain empirical data a face‐to‐face survey was conducted in 2015. It covered a total of 976 randomly selected individuals. The study was performed in the capital of the United Kingdom—London and the Polish capital—Warsaw. The results of the study show that almost half of the respondents were familiar with the GMO concept. According to the respondents, the greatest benefits arising from the genetic modification are: enhanced shelf‐life of food and crops' resistance to extreme climatic conditions. The main disadvantages were: unpredictable consequences of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) modification, production of species‐specific toxins and food allergenicity. Over two thirds of people surveyed support the idea of the obligatory labeling of GM foods. The information presented on food packaging should primarily include potential contraindications to the consumption, indication that food was produced using transgenic sources and a warning about potential allergenicity. An almost equal number of respondents showed intention for purchasing GM food products, an intention to act otherwise, or was not decided. As many as 27.7% of survey participants showed negative attitudes toward GM foods, whereas only 19.8% predominantly positive. It is worth noticing that, with only one exception, no statistically significant differences were observed between the opinions of Polish and British respondents.     

Factors influencing the search for information about genetically modified food products

A recent application of biotechnology to food is genetic modification. Genetically modified (GM) plants, animals and processed foods have been introduced to the international marketplace in the 1990s. As scientific and technological progress in modern biotechnology continues at a breakthrough pace, the consumers are presented with different types and levels of information that is potentially relevant for making choices. Findings from studies of consumer attitudes and awareness towards GM products have varied greatly. Many studies, however, have indicated that public opinions about GM products are not fully formed and the task of informing the public is far from over. This study expands on previous research by examining the factors that influence the search for information about GM products. Utilizing the theory of consumer behaviour and information search, we analyse consumers’ information search patterns about GM products. Specifically, we estimate the probability that consumers search for information actively, passively or do not search for information at all, and the factors influencing this search. An ordered probit model is formulated to measure the factors, both economic and behavioural, that influence in‐formation search by consumers for GM products. Variables representing the informational attitudes and behaviour related to GM products have the greatest impact on the probability of searching for information about GM products. With the exception of age, demographic factors are not significant. The results point to information search, not, for the genetically modified characteristic, but instead for the absence of the characteristic.     

Older consumers’ perceptions of functional foods and non‐edible health‐enhancing innovations

Increasing interest in health and well‐being is likely to drive a growth in demand for products that have positive effects on health. Consumers’ acceptance of and willingness to buy functional foods has been widely studied, but there has not been research on consumers’ attitudes towards innovative non‐edible products with health effects. This study examines how older consumers perceive functional foods and novel non‐edible health‐enhancing products, how willing they are to purchase such products, and how health orientation influences their views. As an example of a ‘radical’ innovation, consumers’ acceptance of rubbing their hands in a specific soil‐based mixture to modulate the immune system is explored. The research material, 13 thematic interviews, was collected in Lahti region, Finland, in 2015. The study indicates that the older consumers’ market is not homogeneous. Based on a qualitative, in‐depth approach, the study distinguishes four consumer segments with different lay understandings of health and attitudes towards health‐enhancing products, which influence people's willingness to purchase such products. The segments are health‐seeking consumers, cautious consumers, critical consumers and natural health consumers. Various motives and barriers for using products with health claims are also identified. The case of rubbing hands in organic soil‐based mixture indicates the difficulty of predicting which consumer segment will first adopt this kind of ‘radical’ innovation. The results highlight that the credence qualities of a novel product must be communicated and advertised before entering the market while also taking into account the sensory properties of the product. ‘Radical innovations’ must be in a form that consumers can easily accept.     

Vaping Viewpoints: A Multi‐Segment Understanding of E‐Cigarette Risk Perceptions

Electronic cigarettes (e‐cigarettes) are battery‐operated devices used to deliver nicotine by vapor and are positioned as a safer alternative to traditional tobacco cigarettes. As a recent entrant to the market, little is known about how consumers perceive the health risks of these devices, raising the question of whether consumers are making informed product adoption and use choices. Study 1 evaluates different consumer usage segments (vapers, smokers, dual users, and nonusers) in terms of their level of perceived risk. Study 2 examines how different groups of consumers' risk perceptions are influenced by on‐ad warning labels. Results show that vapers operate as a distinct consumer segment with lower perceptions of harm than other segments, although illustrate greater likelihood to respond to health messaging and on‐ad warning information.     

Promoting Vegetarianism through Moralization and Knowledge Calibration

This research extends the theories of moralization and knowledge calibration to vegetarianism. In two studies involving interviews with vegetarians, and meat-eaters; we investigated consumer attitudes toward vegetarianism. Our text analysis results revealed that emotionally calibrated consumers are ‘moral vegetarians’ who find meat repulsive, and make ethical food choices. In contrast, cognitively calibrated consumers are ‘health vegetarians’ who scan the nutrition information, avoid meat due to health restrictions, and embrace vegetarianism for healthy life. Finally, we provided insights into how faux meat companies can promote their products and transform consumer behavior toward vegetarianism by advertising ethical and environmentally friendly foods, and healthy and anti-obesity foods to moral and health vegetarians, respectively.     

The effect of knowledge types on consumer‐perceived risk and adoption of genetically modified foods

Scientists have asserted that genetically modified (GM) food offers financial, environmental, health, and quality benefits to society, but the realization of such benefits depends on consumer acceptance of this new technology. Consumer concerns about GM food raise questions about what consumers know about GM food and to what extent this knowledge translates into their evaluations of GM products. The present research empirically examines the effect of both objective and subjective knowledge on perceived risk and, in turn, key consumer behaviors associated with GM food. The results reveal that objective knowledge about GM food significantly reduces performance and psychological risks, whereas subjective knowledge influences only physical risk, and the valence of that impact depends on the level of the consumer's objective knowledge. Furthermore, different risk types enhance consumers' information search and reduce their propensity to buy GM food. The overall findings thus suggest the need for cooperation among government, scientific institutions, and the food industry to foster effective communication strategies that increase consumers' objective knowledge, reduce their risk perceptions, and encourage consumer adoptions of GM technology. © 2007 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Determinants of Consumer Attitudes and Purchase Intentions With Regard to Genetically Modified Food – Results of a Cross-National Survey

Previous research has shown consumers to be highly sceptical towards genetic modification in food production. So far, however, little research has tried to explain how consumers form attitudes and make decisions with regard to genetically modified foods. The paper presents the results of a survey which was carried out in Denmark, Germany, Italy, and the United Kingdom to investigate the formation of consumer attitudes towards genetic modification in food production and of purchase decisions with regard to genetically modified yoghurt and beer. Altogether, 2031 consumers were interviewed in the four countries.Results show that attitude formation and decision-making are more comparable among Danish, German, and British consumers than with Italian consumers. Italian consumers turned out to be significantly less negative towards genetic modification in foods than particularly Danish and German consumers. Across countries, the attitude towards genetic modification in food production was deeply embedded in more general attitudes held by the consumers, in particular attitude towards nature and attitude towards technology. These general attitudes were found to influence perceived risks and benefits of the technology. Purchase decisions with regard to the two product examples were almost exclusively determined by attitudes towards purchasing the products. These were, in turn, significantly influenced by the overall attitude towards genetic modification in food production through their effects on beliefs held by consumers regarding the quality and trustworthiness of the products.The results suggest that attitudes towards genetically modified foods are quite strong, despite their lack of basis in actual product experience. Likewise, the strong relation of product-specific attitudes to the attitude towards using genetic modification in food production suggests that at present consumers reject the technology overall rather than evaluate products on a case-by-case basis. This situation may, however, be changed by a possible increased availability of genetically modified food products on the consumer market.     

The role of materialism,religiosity, and demographics in subjective well-being

In appealing to consumers, marketers need to know what the good life means across various consumer segments. The present study seeks to deepen the understanding of consumer subjective well-being (SWB) by exploring its relationship with selected secular and sacred values. SWB, defined as individuals' cognitive and affective assessments regarding their life satisfaction (Diener, 1984), is treated as the dependent variable in investigating how SWB is influenced by individual consumer materialistic attitudes (a secular value), religiosity (a sacred value), and demographics. Significant differences between high and low religiosity consumers regarding the role of income and materialistic attitudes in predicting SWB were found. Although income and some aspects of materialism are positively related to the SWB of low religiosity consumers, these variables are negatively related to the SWB of high religiosity consumers. This study implies that marketers might benefit from considering consumer religiosity as a segmentation and targeting direction in the design of materialistic positionings and communications. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Consumer Attitude and Visit Intention toward Food-Trucks: Targeting Millennials

Food-trucks are growing in popularity, and they are now part of the foodie culture. As they fit well with Millennials’ desire to try new things—new foods, and a new food culture—the number of trucks on the streets is expected to continue to rise. To understand, how millennial consumers think and make decisions about food-truck dining, this study identifies benefits and risks of food-truck dining and their impact on a millennial consumer’s attitude and visit intention. This study finds consumers see hygienic and environmental risk and convenience and hedonic benefits in food-truck dining. The findings from this study provide evidence that hygienic and environmental risks of food-trucks negatively influence consumers’ attitudes and visit intentions toward food-truck dining experience, while hedonic benefit leads to favorable attitude and visit intention. The findings further indicate that a significant relationship exists between consumer attitude and purchasing intention. This study helps food-truck marketers and operators to develop effective marketing and operational strategies to increase the visits of existing food-truck diners and attract potential consumers.     

Perceptions and Attitudes of Singaporeans towards Genetically Modified Food

This study examines the perceptions and attitudes of Singaporean residents who attended the first public lecture on genetically modified (GM) food in the country. Scales were developed for the underlying consumer concerns, and their relationship with one another and with demographic variables were examined. Slightly more than half of those who attended the talk (n= 417) indicated that they were worried about GM foods and 86 percent agreed or strongly agreed that GM foods should be labeled. Issues relating to health, ethics, and perceived benefits were the major underlying concerns. These were related to several demographic variables and also to perceived knowledge about biotechnology. Women were more concerned about the ethical and health aspects compared to men. Those with post‐graduate education were the least concerned about health and ethical issues and more likely to buy GM foods if consumer benefits are shown. Married respondents were less concerned about health issues compared to single ones. Also, those with children under fifteen years of age were less concerned about health issues compared to others and more likely to buy GM foods if consumer benefits are shown. Respondents subscribing to the Hindu religion were more likely than others to buy GM foods If benefits are shown. Also, those who considered themselves vegetarians were more concerned about the ethical aspects of GM foods compared to others.     

Perceptions,attitudes, and behaviors toward sustainable fashion: Application of Q and Q‐R methodologies

While sustainability has increasingly attracted the attention of scholars and practitioners, consumer attitudes and behaviors toward sustainable consumption have not yet been elucidated. The decision‐making process around sustainable consumption involves diverse and complex considerations including some forms of compromise (tradeoff). In addition, sustainability is a broad and subjective concept, and is not a primary attribute of a product Impacting the choices of consumers. Therefore, it is necessary to apply new methods to overcome the limitations of conventional evidence‐based research. This research uses Q and Q‐R methodologies to identify consumers' subjective viewpoints toward sustainable fashion and to present socio‐demographic differences across segments of sustainable fashion consumers. Study 1 uses Q methodology to interview 26 consumers and to identify four types of decision makers: doubtful egoists, single‐minded bystanders, wavering intellects, and opinion leaders. Study 2 uses Q‐R methodology to verify the psychological and socio‐demographic variables among 328 consumers. The research provides useful suggestions for selecting and approaching target consumer segments in the sustainable fashion industry.     

Segments of sustainable food consumers: a literature review

Sustainable food consumption is an important aspect of sustainable development. When adopting a sustainable food lifestyle, consumers are confronted with complex choices. Today's food consumption is too complex to be explained by socio‐demographic factors exclusively. A broader perspective is needed. In order to explain behaviour across different consumer segments better, relatively homogenous segments of food consumers were identified by segmenting food consumers based on a wide range of variables. The current study aims to provide an overview of published studies that have segmented consumers with regard to sustainable food consumption. The literature review has been conducted by searching SciVerse Scopus for all relevant articles available until November 2010. The main criterion for including a specific study was the inclusion of empirical analyses of primary data, resulting in consumer segments with regard to sustainable food consumption. Sixteen articles were incorporated in the final analysis. First, the variables used for segmentation and profiling in the included articles have been categorized into three levels of abstraction: personality characteristics, food‐related lifestyles and behaviour. The three levels of abstraction proved to be helpful in categorizing the segmentation studies. The findings indicate that variables on all three levels were efficient in differentiating consumer segments regarding sustainability. In addition, the importance of price and health differed across the segments, although these variables are only indirectly related to sustainability. Second, the three most frequently identified consumer segments with regard to sustainable food consumption were: ‘greens’, ‘potential greens’ and ‘non‐greens’. These segments differed from one another on all three levels of abstraction. This implies that future segmentation studies should include variables on all levels of abstraction to get a complete picture of existing sustainable consumer segments. Marketers should be aware that targeting specific segments based on socio‐demographic variables exclusively is not sufficient. Personality characteristics, lifestyle and behaviour are all important to take into consideration. Attempts at stimulating sustainable consumption might be most effective when differences across consumer segments are taken into account. Future research is needed to explore the characteristics of different sustainable food consumer segments with respect to their potential contributions in promoting sustainable development.     

Farmers' Market consumers: a Scottish perspective

Farmers' Markets in Scotland have gradually developed since 1999 as an alternative retail outlet for consumers. Throughout the UK, shoppers have become increasingly concerned about the quality and safety of their food and as a result seek healthier, locally grown organic and non‐organic produce. Thus, the growth of Farmers' Markets is directly related to consumer demand for fresh foods, direct from source, with the high quality of products being a primary reason for shopping. Farmers' Markets are not only seen as a place to buy ‘good food’ but also as a means to express consumer values associated with food choices. Scottish Government efforts to revitalize rural economies through local enterprise initiatives is evidenced by funding the initial establishment of the Scottish Association of Farmers' Market (SAFM), formed in 2000 by market organizers to further their development. The benefits of fresh local produce for Scottish consumers, the revival of a sense of community and the concept of ‘new consumption spaces’ tied to locality means the rural economy benefits from the increase in activity and profits through direct sales. This research investigates consumption habits at farmers' markets through the use of attitudinal theories along with food behaviours and motivations for purchasing. The results demonstrate that a positive attitude is important but the influence of others and barriers are not. Consumers are particularly motivated towards resource conservation and there are distinct differences in attitude between urban and rural shoppers. This research provides a unique insight into the attitudes that influence and motivate Farmers' Market consumers in Scotland.     

Consumer knowledge and its consequences: an international comparison

By far the theories of consumer knowledge are mainly estimated in the western countries. It is important and necessary to assess theory generalizability and model equivalence across different culture contexts. This paper intends to gain a preliminary understanding of the relationship between two consumer knowledge components and four product‐related task performances, with a focus on the influences of two psycho‐linguistic differences in cognition. Based on the results of our empirically multi‐group comparison of Chinese and French wine consumers, we find that consumer knowledge is a multidimensional construct in both cultural contexts. It appears that psycho‐linguistic differences largely affect the consumption task performance. Consequently different consumer knowledge components play different roles in consumption tasks and lead wine consumers to employ dissimilar information processing strategies in various cultural contexts.     

An Open Mind Wants More: Opinion Strength and the Desire for Genetically Modified Food Labeling Policy

Two opposing viewpoints exist in the literature; some suggest consumers are unconcerned and do not desire any genetically modified labeling, while others indicate the opposite. The mixed results may be because consumers make finer distinctions than surveys have called for, and have evaluation schemes sensitive to information about the benefits and risks associated with genetically modified foods. We find consumers are quite nuanced in their preferences for genetically modified labeling policy. Unexpectedly, consumers with less‐defined views desire mandatory labeling of the most stringent type, while consumers with stronger viewpoints (either pro‐ or con‐genetically modified) are more relaxed in their labeling requirements.     

Coupon characteristics and redemption intentions: A segment-level analysis

The authors investigate how different segments of consumers react to different coupon characteristics, such as face value and method of distribution. They utilize a latent segmentation approach to identify the underlying segments. The empirical analysis suggests that different segments of consumers place varying emphasis with regard to economic benefits, psychic benefits, effort costs, and substitution costs. A further examination of the derived segments with respect to consumer correlates such as psychological, attitudinal, behavioral, and demographic characteristics reveals that coupon-related consumer characteristics, rather than demographics, exhibit significant and meaningful differences across these segments. Implications of the segment-level analysis for evaluating coupon drops and managing promotional expenditures are also discussed. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Throwing It All Away: Exploring Affluent Consumers’ Attitudes Toward Wasting Edible Food

The skewed allocation of food across the world population is a major concern, as the result is that some of us live in abundant supply while others spend their life in constant scarcity. While researchers have studied a variety of issues related to the amounts of food being wasted, or the waste of edible food across consumers with different demographic characteristics, less is known about the drivers of attitudes toward food waste. Based on survey data from a sample of affluent Norwegian consumers, we test how subjective food knowledge, environmental concern, age, and income are related to consumer attitudes toward wasting edible food. We find that all variables except income drive consumer attitudes. Implications for theory and public policy are offered.     

Product attributes and consumer acceptance of nutritionally enhanced genetically modified foods

Using data from a national survey, this study analyses US consumers’ acceptance of genetically modified foods that provide additional nutritional benefits. Using an ordered probit model, this study examines the relation between the willingness to consume genetically modified foods and consumers’ economic, demographic and value attributes. Empirical results suggest that despite having some reservations, especially about the use of biotechnology in animals, American consumers are not decidedly opposed to food biotechnology. Consumers’ economic and demographic variables are only weakly related to their acceptance of food biotechnology, especially when technology involves plant‐to‐plant DNA transfer. However, public trust and confidence in various private and public institutions are significantly related to their acceptance of food biotechnology. Overall, consumer acceptance of bioengineered foods is driven primarily by public perceptions of risks, benefits and safety of these food products.