R&D,Interindustry and International Technology Spillovers and the Total Factor Productivity Growth of Manufacturing Industries in Canada, 1974-1989

The paper presents new econometric evidence on the relationship between total factor productivity growth and the R&D expenditures of Canadian manufacturing industries in the presence of interindustry and international spillovers of technology. In contrast to studies that presume that international spillovers are incorporated in imports of intermediate and/or capital equipment goods, the present paper assumes that the principal channel of transmission of new technology is foreign direct investment. Three original proxies for international spillovers use information on patenting, the size and the origin of foreign ownership in the host country and the R&D expenditures in the country of origin. The results suggest that the nexus between industry's own R&D expenditures and the TFP growth is significant and positive, especially for the process-related R&D. Domestic interindustry spillovers of new technology have a larger effect on TFP than industry's own R&D expenditures. All three proxies for international technology spillovers are associated positively and significantly with TFP growth. However, international spillovers contribute to TFP growth less than domestic interindustry spillovers and less than own process-related R&D.     

Contributions and Channels of Interindustry R&D Spillovers: An Estimation for Japanese High-tech Industries

This paper estimates the contributions of R&D spillovers to four high-tech industries in Japan—general machinery, electrical machinery, transportation machinery and chemicals—by estimating the trans-log cost and share functions that include the R&D stock variables of own and spillover-source industries. The candidates for spillover- source industries are selected on the basis of large R&D flow or R&D proximity. The R&D flow measures the spillover embodied in purchased intermediate goods using input–output coefficients. The R&D proximity measures the extent of similarity between a pair of industries of the distribution of R&D expenditures across research fields, and is expected to show the likelihood of spillover at the R&D stage. The results suggest that electrical machinery benefited from R&D in the chemical industry, through the purchase of intermediate goods, whereas general machinery and transportation machinery benefited from R&D in the metal products industry, through R&D proximity. There was no evidence of the chemical industry benefiting from R&D spillovers. These results clearly imply that the contributions and the channels of R&D spillovers are diverse, casting doubt on earlier studies that used weighted sums of R&D expenditures (or their stocks) of other industries as aggregate spillover variables.     

Interindustry Technology Flows and Productivity in Finnish Manufacturing

The paper examines the importance of interindustry technology flows in finnish manufacturing in the 1980s and early 1990s. An attempt is made to distinguish between embodied technology flows and spillovers, so clarifying the spillover concept.Embodied technology covers intermediate goods and capital equipment. The embodied technology data that have been used are partly based on input—output analysis, while the spillover estimates presented are based on measures of technological distance based on the industry-specific distributions of R&D expenditures. Econometric analysis of the effects of the various technology inputs on total factor productivity implies that technology embodied in foreign machinery, domestic spillovers and, to some extent, the firms' own R&D have been the most important technology sources on average.     

Issues in Assessing the Effect of Interindustry R&D Spillovers

This paper aims to clarify three issues concerning the weighting methodol ogy generally used to evaluate interindustry R&D spillovers. These issues concern the likely nature of the spillovers estimated through different types of supporting matrices; the similarity between input–output (IO), technology flows and technological proximity matrices; and the relevance of the assumption that a single matrix can be used for different countries. Data analyses of weighting components show that technology flows matrices are in an intermediate position between IO matrices and technological proximity matrices, but closer to the former. The various IO matrices, as well as the three technological proximity matrices, are very similar to each other. The panel data estimates of the effect of different types of interindustry R&D spillovers on industrial productivity growth in the G7 countries reject the hypotheses that a technology flows matrix can be approximated by an IO matrix and that a single IO matrix can be usedfor different countries. By transitivity, the procedure that comprises using a single technology flow for several countries is not reliable. The international comparison shows that each country benefits from different types of R&D externality. In Japan and, to a lesser extent, in the US, the rate of return to direct R&D is very high and is likely to compensate for relatively weak interindustry R&D spillover effects. In the five other industrialized countries, the reverse observation is true: strong social rates of return to R&D counterbal ance the poor performances of direct R&D.     

MEASURING INTERSECTORAL KNOWLEDGE SPILLOVERS: AN APPLICATION OF SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS TO ITALY

R&D spillovers are unanimously considered as one of the main driving forces of technical change, innovation and economic growth. This paper aims at measuring interindustry R&D spillovers. We apply an ‘uncertainty-sensitivity analysis’ to the Italian input–output table of intermediate goods split into 31 economic sectors for the year 2000. The value added of using this methodology is the opportunity of distinguishing between spillover effects induced by productive linkages (the Leontief forward multipliers) and those activated by R&D investments, capturing the uncertain and non-linear nature of the relations between spillovers and factors affecting them.     

A micro-econometric analysis of the role of R&D spillovers using a nonlinear translog specification

This paper assesses the impact of Research and Development (R&D) spillovers on production for a panel of 1,203 Italian manufacturing firms over the period 1998–2003.The estimations are based on a nonlinear translog production function augmented by a measure of R&D spillovers which combines the geographical distance between firms, the technological similarity within each pair of firms and the technical efficiency of each firm. The estimation method takes into account the endogeneity of regressors and the potential sample selection issue regarding the decision by firms to invest in R&D. Results show that the translog production function is more suitable than the Cobb-Douglas for modelling firm behaviour and that returns to scale are increasing. Moreover, the internal and external stocks of technology exert a significant impact on firms’ production. Finally, it emerges that, for Italian manufacturing firms, R&D capital and R&D spillovers are highly substitutes.     

Spillovers,Linkages and Technical Change

Using US input–output data for the period 1958–87, I find strong evidence that industry total factor productivity (TFP) growth is significantly related to the TFP performance of the supplying sectors, with an elasticity of almost 60%. R&D intensity is also found to be a significant determinant of industry TFP growth, with an estimated return of about 10–13% and the return to embodied R&D is estimated at 43%. Direct productivity spillovers, from the technological progress made by supplying sectors, appear to be more important than spillovers from the R&D performed by suppliers. They also play a key role in explaining changes in manufacturing TFP growth over time. Changes in the contribution made by direct productivity spillovers to TFP growth account for almost half of the slowdown in TFP growth in manufacturing from 1958–67 to 1967–77, and for 20% of the TFP growth recovery in this sector from 1967–77 to 1977–87. Changes in R&D intensity and embodied R&D are relatively unimportant in explaining movements in manufacturing TFP growth over these three periods.     

Productivity Spillovers Across Countries and Industries: New Evidence From OECD Countries

This paper uses a translog approach to estimate intra‐ and inter‐industry productivity spillovers transmitted through input–output linkages, distinguishing R&D and other (remainder) spillovers. For a panel of 12 OECD countries and 15 manufacturing industries from 1995–2005, first, we find that the estimated elasticity with respect to ‘own’ R&D amounts to 0.25 on average (which would be estimated to be lower if R&D were assumed to be additively separable from other inputs). Second, there are sizeable intra‐industry and relatively small inter‐industry R&D spillovers. Third, there are significant remainder spillovers, which are mainly of the intra‐industry type and substantially amplify idiosyncratic technology shocks.     

Imputed Interindustry Technology Flows - A Comparative SMFA Analysis

This paper shows how the pattern of an interindustry R&D flow system can be detected using a Subsystem-MFA (SMFA). The standard subsystem analysis shows the innovation spillovers of the relevant innovative sectors of a country, which are then turned into graphical form so that the sector clustering into this system can be displayed like a 'molecule' of sectors. The analysis uses the recently published input-output tables of the OECD for Germany, Japan and the United States for the beginning, the middle and the end of the 1980s. The analysis uses R&D-expenditures as an innovation-indicatorvector, published also by the OECD. The results show that there are specific patterns of interindustry imputed R&D flows that differ to some extent between the given countries. These differences can be interpreted as being due to the specific economic history of these countries.     

Environmental regulations in private and mixed duopolies: Taxes on emissions versus green R&D subsidies

In this article, we compare two kinds of environmental regulations—emissions taxes and green R&D subsidies—in private and mixed-duopoly markets in the presence of R&D spillovers. We show that a green R&D subsidy is better (worse) than an emissions tax when the green R&D is efficient (inefficient), irrespective of R&D spillovers, whereas the existence of a publicly owned firm encourages the government to adopt a subsidy policy. We also show that the optimal policy choice depends on R&D efficiency and spillovers. In particular, when green R&D is inefficient and the spillover rate is low (high), the government should choose an emissions tax and (not) privatize the state-owned firm. When green R&D is efficient, however, an R&D subsidy is better, but a privatization policy is not desirable for society, irrespective of spillovers.     

Real options game models of R&D competition between asymmetric firms with spillovers

Using real options game models, we consider the characterization of strategic equilibria associated with an asymmetric Research and Development (R&D) race between an incumbent firm and an entrant firm in the development of a new innovative product under market and technological uncertainties. The random arrival time of the discovery of the patent protected innovative product is modeled as a Poisson process. Input spillovers on the R&D effort are modeled by the change in the leader’s hazard rate of success of innovation upon the follower’s entry into the R&D race. Asymmetry between the two competing firms include sunk costs of investment, stochastic revenue flow rates generated from the product, and hazard rates of arrival of success of R&D efforts of the two firms. Under asymmetric duopoly, we obtain the complete characterization of the three types of Markov perfect equilibria (sequential leader–follower, preemption and simultaneous entry) of the firms’ optimal R&D entry decisions with respect to various sets of model parameters. Our model shows that under positive input spillover, preemptive equilibrium does not occur in the R&D race due to the presence of dominant second mover advantage. The two firms choose optimally to enter simultaneously if the sunk cost asymmetry is relatively small; otherwise, sequential equilibrium would occur. When the initial hazard rate is low relative to the level of input spillover, simultaneous entry would occur as an optimal decision, signifying another scenario of dominant second mover advantage. On the other hand, when the initial hazard rate is sufficiently high so that the first mover advantage becomes more significant, simultaneous equilibrium does not occur even under high level of positive input spillover.     

Technological Opportunity and Productivity of R&D Activities

Economists have managed to find a positive impact of R&D efforts on productivity. However, the empirical results of their studies have not explained the observed sectoral differences in this important impact. With due reference to three global industries, namely, chemical, computer, and electrical/electronic, the objective of this study is to evaluate the impact of technological opportunity on the productivity of R&D activities. Technological opportunity refers to the ease of achievement of innovations and technical improvements, which could be jointly represented by the intensities of knowledge spillovers, inter-firm research overlap and scope of research. In this study, the degree of technological opportunity is quantified by patent statistics. The empirical findings confirm a positive relationship between technological opportunity and the productivity of R&D effort, and the estimated rate of return falls within the range as reported by past studies.     

Measuring Intersectoral Spillovers: French Evidence

In this paper, we measure the effect of internal R&D and various spillover concepts on productivity growth, using a database for France that covers the period 1978–92. Three spillover concepts are distinguished: rent spillovers related to investment goods; rent spillovers related to intermediate goods; pure knowledge spillovers. When production is measured by gross output, all three spillover concepts yield positive and statistically significant coefficients. Each concept has a measurable effect on technological progress at the sectoral level.     

Resonant R&D structure for effective technology development amidst megacompetition—an empirical analysis of smart cooperative R&D structure in Japan’s transport machinery industry

Under the megacompetition in globalizing economy while facing long lasting economic stagnation, the effective utilization of potential resources for innovation has become a crucial strategy for R&D intensive industries. The construction of a smart cooperative R&D structure has thus become significant. Among Japan’s R&D intensive industries, the transport machinery industry has constructed an effective cooperative R&D structure by smartly complementing both comparatively advantageous and disadvantageous technologies by means of integrating the effective utilization of technology spillover and joint collaborative R&D.Prompted by this complementing system, this paper attempts to elucidate the mechanism enabling the transport machinery industry to construct the smart cooperative R&D structure. Resonant R&D structure is identified as a source of such R&D cooperation leading to increasing its marginal productivity of technology.     

中国行业层面研究与试验发展资本存量核算

研究目标：测算中国八大行业门类研究与试验发展（Research and Development,R&D）资本存量。研究方法：基于SNA2008的GDP核算框架,厘清R&D支出的资本化核算框架;再利用美国BEA方法测算R&D资本存量。研究发现：1990~2015年,中国R&D资本存量不到美国R&D资本存量的1/4;然而,自1994年后,中国R&D资本存量年均增长率达24.79%,而美国仅为4.86%,中美两国R&D资本存量差距呈逐渐缩小趋势;制造业R&D资本存量占全国R&D资本存量的比例呈上升趋势,从1990年的17.41%增长到2015年的68.08%,这与中国加快制造业转型升级的事实相符。研究创新：给出完整的R&D支出资本化核算过程,首次测算中国八大行业门类的R&D资本存量。研究价值：为分析技术进步对经济增长的影响提供了行业层面R&D投资和资本存量数据序列。     

Irreversible investment and R&D spillovers in a dynamic duopoly

Investments in new production processes usually involve a significant amount of R&D, generating spillovers that lowers the second comer's investment cost. We show that these spillovers substantially affect the equilibrium of the dynamic game. Even for low spillover values, the leader delays her investment until the stochastic fundamental has gone past the level such that the follower's optimal strategy is to invest as soon as he attains the spillover. This bears several interesting implications. First, because the follower invests as he benefits from the spillover, in equilibrium the average time delay between the two investments is short, as it should be expected. Second, in case of a major innovation, an optimal public policy requires an intervention in favor of the investment activity; an increase in uncertainty - delaying the equilibrium - calls for higher subsidization rates. Third, numerical simulations show that the spillover reduces the difference between the leader's and the follower's maximum value functions. Accordingly, our model can help generate realistic market betas.     

Rates of return to public agricultural research in 48 US states

The internal rate of return to public investment in agricultural R&D is estimated for each of the continental US states. Theoretically, our contribution provides a way of obtaining the returns to a local public good using Rothbart’s concept of virtual prices. Empirically, a stochastic cost function that includes own knowledge capital stock as well as spillover capital stock variables is estimated. Stochastic spatial dependency among states generated by knowledge spillovers is used to define the ‘appropriate’ jurisdictions. We estimate an average own-state rate of 17% and a social rate of 29% that compare well to the 9 and 12% average returns of the S&P500 and NASDAQ composite indexes during the same period.     

Determinants of spatial knowledge spillovers in Italian provinces

Statistical evidence suggests that the relevance of knowledge spillovers has increased over time. In this paper we focus on regional knowledge spillovers and adopt a new econometric transformation that allows inference on potential inter-regional knowledge spillovers, accounting for spatial interdependencies.Determinants of inter-regional knowledge spillovers are explained with a sample of 103 Italian provinces. We find that a region’s absorptive capacity, measured by local R&D expenditure and social capital, implies a reduction of outward knowledge spillovers.Identification is based on the use of Two Stages Least Squares and Fixed Effects estimates.     

Technological spillovers and productivity in Italian manufacturing firms

We study whether a firm’s total factor productivity dynamics is positively influenced by its own R&D activity and by the technological spillovers generated at the intra- and inter-sectorial level. Our approach corrects simultaneously for the endogeneity and the selectivity biases introduced by the use of a firm’s own R&D as a regressor. The evidence suggests that a firm’s involvement in R&D activities accounts for significant productivity gains. Firms also benefit from spillovers originating from their own industries, as well as from innovative upstream sectors.     

Impact of R&D and Technology Diffusion on Productivity Growth: Empirical Evidence for 10 OECD Countries

This paper examines the empirical evidence on the impact of performed R&D and of R&D embodied in intermediate and capital goods on productivity performance in 10 major OECD countries over the last two decades. To quantify intersectoral and international technology flows, industry-level embodied R&D variables were constructed from an input–output (IO) R&D embodiment model. The productivity variables used are discrete Divisia growth indexes of total factor productivity (TFP), which were estimated from an IO growth accounting model. The results from pooled regressions indicate that the rates of return of the R&D variables were positively significant and increasing in the 1980s. In particular, embodied R&D is an important source for TFP growth in services, indicating very high social returns of the flows of capital-embodied technology into this sector. Moreover, the information and communi-cation technology (ICT) cluster of industries played a major role in the generation and cquisition of new technologies at the international level.