An Instrumentalist Critique of “Cost-Utility Analysis”

This paper seeks to explain the causes of turbulence in foreign exchange markets in selected transition economies (Albania, Belarus, Bulgaria, Croatia,Macedonia, Moldova, Romania and Ukraine) over the period 1995-2006. It uses a set of categorical regression (CATREG) models. It considers the influence of macroeconomic, social development, institutional and external variables, based on first, second or third generation previously released theoretical models, bringing a new innovative and wider approach to the field. It finds that the insights developed by second and third generation models complement rather than substitute for the explanation provided by first generation models in the case of transition economies.     

Is big better? On scale and scope economies in the Portuguese water sector

The ‘big is better’ idea has recently been challenged in network industries. Scale economies are considered finite so that for the individual utility an optimal scale of operations arises. A similar observation yields for scope economies as joint production is not predicted univocally anymore. In the water sector, scale economies and joint production are preferred. Nevertheless, several countries are restructuring the sector in order to improve the scale and scope of operations. This article intends to provide some insights into this matter. We analyze the Portuguese water market structure using non-parametric techniques with data from the year 2005. After surveying the literature on scale and scope economies, we discuss the peculiarities of the Portuguese water sector. The paper confirms the natural monopoly features. Although scope economies are absent, it highlights scale economies. The optimal scale of the utilities is located between 160,000 and 180,000 inhabitants. As such, the Portuguese water sector optimally counts 60 water utilities.     

Economic fluctuations in Central and Eastern Europe: the facts

This article provides a detailed empirical analysis of quarterly frequency dynamics in macroeconomic aggregates in 12 countries of Central and Eastern Europe (CEE). It shows that business fluctuations in CEE countries are, in general, more pronounced than in developed ones, and are of similar size as in other emerging market economies. Private consumption is particularly volatile. Relative to major developed economies government spending is dominantly procyclical, and net exports are strongly countercyclical. The most frequent country outliers are the high inflation countries of Bulgaria, Romania and Russia, especially in labour market, price and exchange rate variables. Excluding these countries from the sample makes many of the observed patterns in cyclical dynamics more homogenous, and broadly similar to ones established in developed economies.     

Simultaneous estimation of income and price elasticities of export demand,scale economies and total factor productivity growth for Brazil

This article focuses on a growth model in which (unlike other models) low (high) export demand elasticities and the fact that developing countries are importers of capital goods help explaining the slow (high) growth of these countries in the transition and in the steady state. The question arises whether export demand elasticities are low or high. For answering this question, export demand elasticities for the case of Brazil are obtained by estimation of the model. As a by-product of estimating the model, we obtain estimates for total-factor productivity growth and for scale economies. Based on the results from estimation we calculate steady-state growth rates, engine and handmaiden effects of growth as well as dynamic steady-state gains from trade. The model and the results are discussed in regard to several strands of literature.     

Productivity drivers of infrastructure companies: Network industries utilizing economies of scale in the digital era

What drives the productivity dynamics of infrastructure companies? Using a panel of firms in 14 countries, we study total factor productivity (TFP) enhancers of utility and network services companies. We find that moving TFP closer to the technological frontier drives productivity growth at higher speeds in Asian countries than in European countries. We also find that financial leverage exerts a positive effect on TFP growth for larger infrastructure firms and that more financially developed countries utilize economies of scale through better use of financial resources. Large utility and transportation companies display a higher rate of TFP growth, indicating that a competition policy to encourage M&As would be prudent for the utility/transportation sectors to maximize economies of scale. In contrast, we find diseconomies of scale for energy companies in some countries. Moreover, young network firms improve TFP growth faster than their peers in countries with fewer product market regulations. Therefore, policies should remove entry barriers while facilitating the departure of old and low-productivity firms from network markets. Finally, policymakers should offer well-targeted fiscal incentives for intangible investments to boost TFP because the accumulation of intangible assets such as digital technology promotes more scale economies through network effects.     

FDI into transition economies

The article explores the determination of foreign direct investment (FDI) into the Balkan transition economies – Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Bulgaria, Croatia, Macedonia, Montenegro, Romania and Serbia. Detailed FDI inflows to Southeast Europe are analysed to determine the main differences in the volume, timing and sectoral structure of FDI within the region and in comparison to the Central East European countries. A gravity model for all transition economies during 1990–2011 is then estimated to assess whether the factors driving FDI to the Western Balkans are different. They are found to be so; even when the size of their economies, distance from the source economies, institutional quality and prospects of EU membership are taken into account, Western Balkans countries receive less FDI than other transition countries. These issues are of policy relevance for the Balkan economies and ought to contribute to the current debate on the ‘new growth model’.     

Are the BRIC countries overtaking intermediate countries in the race for international R&D? The case of Spain

The emergence of Brazil, Russia, India and China (BRIC) as international locations for foreign direct investment in R&D is a sign that multinationals are relocating their technological activities to new territories. This trend may weaken the supremacy of the developed countries until now considered leaders in innovation, and may mean the loss of the competitive advantages enjoyed by the countries considered intermediate innovators. This paper examines the situation of Spain as a typical intermediate economy and compares it to its main competitors among the BRICs. Based on eight case studies of subsidiaries with R&D centres in Spain, we conclude that the policies adopted by certain emerging economies to develop their national innovation systems are proving effective and that these countries now pose a threat to intermediate economies. However, the BRICs still lag behind in terms of the security of their institutional framework; this situation leaves intermediate countries in an advantageous position.     

Currency substitution and seignorage in eastern europe

Economic and political uncertainty, high inflation and liberalization of foreign exchange restrictions have encouraged substantial currency substitution in the economies in transition. This paper presents empirical evidence on currency substitution in four Eastern European countries in transition: Poland, Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria. It is shown how currency substitution affects money demand and by that seignorage revenues. The empirical estimates of the money demand functions are used to calculate the seignorage maximizing rate of inflation in the economies in transition.     

Transitional Progress and Business Challenges

Eight Central European and Baltic countries have joined the European Union in May 2004. Transitioning economies need to develop a business environment with a healthy financial sector to realize economic growth. This paper uses two classification methods, the discriminant analysis and taxonomic measure, to investigate the possibility of the South Eastern European and Commonwealth of Independent transitional countries to develop an enterprise and business environment that is compatible with the newest European Union (EU8) members. This paper found that the EU8 countries are correctly classified as having transitioned successfully in their business development. Bulgaria and Croatia have transitioned closely to the EU8. However, Romania, Ukraine, and the Commonwealth of Independent countries are not close to the EU8 in achieving a compatible business environment.      

International Economies of Scale and the Gains from Trade

In this paper, we present a two-country trade model with external economies of scale that emerge on an international level but are partially localized in each country. First, we show that the larger country exports the good produced in an industry with external economies of scale in the trading equilibrium. Second, we investigate the welfare effects of trade for the following two cases: (I) the case where external economies are completely localized in autarky; (II) the case where external economies are internationally effective in autarky. In case (II), it is shown that trade can be welfare-decreasing for both countries.     

The impact of macroeconomic factors on income inequality: Evidence from the BRICS

In this paper we investigate how the evolution of income growth, real interest rates, and inflation have driven income inequality across a variety of countries with particular focus on the BRICS economies (Brazil, Russia, India, China, and South Africa) during the period 2001 to 2015. Our work suggests that, when central banks of the BRICS economies use monetary policy for macroeconomic stabilization, they need to consider the impact monetary policy changes have on the distribution of income in their nations. Our estimates reveal that the unintended consequence of policies that induce economic growth and higher prices is higher income inequality. We find that the positive relationship between the three macroeconomic variables and income inequality for the BRICS economies is stronger during the post-2008 period.     

The Southeast Asian Economies in the Age of Discontent

This paper investigates the effects on and responses of five middle‐income Southeast Asian economies to the current global environment of authoritarian populism, the retreat from economic liberalism, and the appeal of anti‐globalization movements. While the political histories and institutional capabilities of the five – Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Thailand and Vietnam – vary greatly, these economies have a history of at least moderately fast economic growth for extended periods, and of increasing regional and global economic integration. We argue that most of the factors behind the discontent with globalization in the rich economies are not present to the same degree in these countries, and that there has therefore been no major retreat from the economic policy settings that have underpinned their past economic success. However, there are no grounds for complacency. Economic growth is slowing in some of the countries, economic insecurity remains widespread, and the development of durable independent institutions has lagged economic growth.     

Optimum currency area theory: evidence from post-Soviet countries and implications for Eurasian Economic Union

In this article the theory of optimum currency area is applied to post-Soviet and other selected countries. The study finds smaller exchange rate variability when the economies are closely linked by bilateral trade, are subject to similar shocks both on aggregate and at the industry level, have similar inflation rates, are open and smaller in economic size, and have higher labour migration as proxied by remittance flows. The estimation results also substantiate that the US dollar plays a dominant role as an anchor currency. Next, the study shows that economic fundamentals suggest limited prospects of a common currency for post-Soviet countries, particularly for the Eurasian Economic Union (EAEU). It is also found that Moldova, among the post-Soviet countries, better approximates an optimum currency area with Russia. Further, when the government debt-to-GDP ratio is taken into account, only Kazakhstan from the EAEU member countries stands out as having positive prospects for forming a common currency area with Russia.     

On the income dependence of equivalence scales

Household consumption exhibits economies of scale as the number of household members increases. We collect survey data from two countries, Germany and France, in order to obtain direct subjective estimates of household consumption economies of scale, and, in particular, to examine an additional dimension: whether household consumption economies of scale change as living standards go up. Our data from both countries indicate strongly that household economies of scale increase as the living standard goes up. We discuss the robustness of our survey method and compare our results to these of alternative estimation methods in the literature.     

An inquiry into the transformation process of village-based industrial clusters: The case of an iron and steel cluster in northern Vietnam

While village industries are known to play an important role in the development of rural areas in developing countries, little is known about village industries in transition economies. This paper inquires into the transformation process of a village industry in northern Vietnam from a traditional to a modern cluster where new iron and steel products are produced. We found that proprietors’ human capital acquired by formal education and experience in marketing and management as well as their family ties are critically important for upgrading product lines and improving management, marketing, and consequently the overall performance of the village enterprises.     

Service quality,scale economies and ownership: an econometric analysis of water supply costs

Issues related to service quality are crucial for water utility management and regulation. Omitting these aspects, especially when they are treated as exogenous, can lead to large biases in estimating cost functions as well as to misleading information concerning technology. In this article, we integrate the output multi-dimension in the cost function, considering delivered water volume and service quality as being endogenous. Network-related scale measures and private versus public ownership are investigated with the objective of evaluating how endogenous quality may affect their impact on costs. A translog cost model is estimated from a dataset of US water utilities. It is shown that including the quality level of the delivered services has a significant impact on scale economies and ownership effects. Significant economies of scope confirm the existence of trade-offs between water production and service quality.     

Competition policy in the transitional economies

Conclusion It is very encouraging to note how much progress has been made with competition policy, especially in the four Visegrad countries. One might add that the developments were not merely in the legal front; in both Poland and Hungary the competition offices have forceful and impressive heads who have used their considerable discretion to shape anti-monopoly practice in their respective countries. The weakness of Bulgaria and Romania on this front is a reflection of the more general problems in implementing market-based reforms, and in establishing true independence between the economic and the political sphere.Nonetheless, our discussion indicates several cases where further developments could be made. The legislative structures in the reforming economies perhaps place excessive faith on quantitive indicators of dominance, and in many countries the independence of the competition offices from the political system is insufficient. The reliance on EU-type legislative structures perhaps also leads to insufficientper se prohibitions.     

Unveiling the objectives of central banks: Tales of four Latin American countries

We estimate the stabilization objectives of four Latin American countries that have implemented a flexible inflation targeting regime recently: Brazil, Chile, Colombia and Peru. In doing so, we develop a New Keynesian dynamic stochastic general equilibrium model for these economies and estimate their structural parameters through Bayesian methods. To infer the stabilization objectives in each country, we assume that central banks set monetary policy optimally. Our main results highlight that the central banks in these four countries have a high preference for stabilizing inflation, but do not have the systematic objective of stabilizing the exchange rate. This result is robust to assuming either commitment or discretion in the optimal policy. Also, in contrast to the case of commitment, assuming discretion in the optimal monetary policy increases the preference for interest rate smoothing, making it comparable to a preference for inflation stabilization. Finally, except for the case of Peru, the monetary policy under discretion has a better empirical fit in these countries than the one under commitment.     

The Effect of Customs Unions Among Specialized Countries on International Capital Flows*

This paper examines the effect on international capital flows of a customs union formed by specialized countries. We assume no economies of scale, and use a general equilibrium model with internationally mobile capital. It is shown that integration among countries with characteristics generally associated with having specialized economies will lead to a flow of capital into the union. These characteristics specifically concern the types of goods they trade among themselves, and with the rest of the world, and their ability to absorb capital inflows.