Efficiency of Cooperatives and Investor Owned Firms Revisited

The objectives of dairy processing cooperatives differ from those of investor‐owned firms (IOFs). However, the literature usually assumes the same performance measures for cooperatives vis‐a‐vis IOFs. This study compares the performance of dairy cooperatives and IOFs in major European dairy producing countries. A traditional input oriented approach is used and two alternative approaches are used to account for the differential objectives of cooperatives. Cooperatives’ performance differs across the two approaches from being outperformed by IOFs using the input oriented approach to outperforming them when using an approach that is more in line with cooperatives’ objectives.     

制度逻辑、制度矛盾与合作社的“公司化”

为了回答合作社为什么会"公司化"这一问题,本文首先将合作社的"公司化"归为组织形式改变这一理论范畴,然后在组织分析的新制度主义范式下,建立制度逻辑导致合作社组织形式改变的理论模型,最后运用解释性案例研究方法予以实证。研究发现:第一,农业产业化逻辑和农业市场化逻辑是合作社走向"公司化"的重要制度原因;第二,上述两大制度逻辑同合作社的法定形式存在冲突并由此带来制度不兼容、组织非效率和利益错配三大制度矛盾;第三,三大制度矛盾分别提供内生驱动力、制度资源和自主的行动者,从而导致合作社的"公司化"。     

Size and industry effects in the performance of agricultural cooperatives

The objective of this study is to determine if there are important size and industry effects on financial performance of agricultural cooperatives. The performance of 43 dairy, food, grain, and farm supply cooperatives in the U.S. was analyzed over the period 1970-1987 using financial ratios derived from accounting data. The analysis revealed significant size and industry effects. Large regional cooperatives are more efficient in utilizing their assets to generate sales, while small regional cooperatives have higher profitability. The findings suggest that the emphasis on growth may not always produce beneficial results among agricultural cooperatives. Among the four industries studied, the dairy regional cooperatives appear to be the strongest performers, while the food marketing cooperatives are characterized by the lowest performance measures. Since both dairy and food cooperatives engage in value-added processing, this difference in performance makes it difficult to reach clear conclusions about possible advantages of disadvantages or vertical integration relative to traditional cooperative activities. Trend analysis indicates that the profitability of the agricultural cooperatives in all industry and size categories declined in response to the downturn in U.S. agriculture after 1980. While the decline in profitability was at similar rates for both large and small cooperatives, the variation of efficiency and leverage was in opposite directions. Large cooperatives may be expected to continue improving their asset utilization without relative improvement in profitability, and increasing the level of their debt in relation to equity.     

合作社参与对农户测土配方施肥技术采纳影响研究——基于标准化生产视角

本文基于收入最大化理论框架,以测土配方施肥技术为例,结合覆盖所有粮食主产区的微观调查数据,采用PSM模型实证分析了合作社参与对农户测土配方施肥技术的影响.研究结果表明:(1)合作社参与有助于提升农户测土配方施肥技术采纳水平;(2)合作社不仅能够通过技术培训促使农户主动采纳测土配方施肥技术,更主要通过标准化生产让农户被动...     

合作社类型、治理机制与经营绩效

治理机制是农业产业化经营组织有效运营的关键,其完善程度影响经营绩效。本文基于中国4省(区)7个地级市221家农民合作社的访谈问卷数据,探究以合作社为纽带的产业化经营组织类型、治理机制与经营绩效之间的关系。结果表明:合约治理不仅对合作社经营绩效产生直接的正向影响,还能通过促进关系治理间接提升经营绩效,合约治理与关系治理存在互补而非替代关系;不同类型合作社的合约治理程度存在显著性差异,但关系治理水平较为相似。相较于公司从属型合作社,原生型合作社的合约治理水平较低,公司主导型合作社的合约治理程度较高。因此,合作社需要审视缔结的产业化经营组织特征,妥善运用合约治理与关系治理两类机制,提高合作社经营绩效。     

加入合作社对种粮大户农机投资及服务供给行为的影响分析

农业机械化水平是衡量现代农业发展程度的重要指标。以种粮大户、合作社等为代表的新型农业经营主体逐渐成为农机投资和提供农机服务的主力军。基于2018年江苏省686个种粮大户的微观调查数据,本文选用了多重跨栏模型并采用控制函数法实证检验了加入合作社对种粮大户农机投资与提供农机服务的影响。研究发现:相较于未加入合作社的种粮大户,加入合作社的种粮大户购买农机和提供农机作业服务的动机更强,户均农机作业服务供给水平更高。具体而言,加入合作社的种粮大户,其农机投资和提供农机作业服务的概率分别上升10.5和12.5个百分点,户均农机作业服务收益约增加3.382万元。由此,本文提出三点政策建议:一是引导种粮大户兼具生产性和服务性的双重功能,并鼓励合作社将种粮大户组织起来,共同开展农机服务。二是发挥合作社的组织优势,引导种粮大户投资相对短缺的农机装备。三是农机补贴向服务供给短缺的农机品种倾斜。     

Cooperatives and the Commodity Political Agenda: A Political Economy Approach

Historically, major agricultural cooperatives in Canada have been intimately involved in commodity policy issues. Large cooperatives were created because farmers were upset about the perceived lack of competition in buying farm inputs or selling farm outputs. Often, the resulting cooperative was the organization farmers saw as the logical organization to represent their view of commodity policy or competition policy. As cooperatives grew and diversified, the ability to represent their members coherently across policy issues was hampered. For processing cooperatives in the supply-managed sector, the requirement that the cooperative be the political arm of industry, process product, and provide maximum returns to producer members made for a complicated objective function. This paper focuses on the twin objectives of providing efficient member services and performing political lobbying in a public choice framework. The results are illustrated by the recent history of a supply-managed further-processing cooperative and a diversified grain cooperative.     

农业专业合作社的融资供求衔接问题研究

农业专业合作社融资具有一般企业所不具有的特殊性。论文从理论角度分析了农业合作社融资次序的选择,认为通过正规金融实现合作社融资供求衔接的有效途径。在供求不平衡,传统信贷供给无法满足合作社融资需求的状况下,探索了“公司＋合作社＋农户”、“农业龙头企业＋担保公司＋合作社＋农户”、“政府＋农业生产基地＋农业企业＋合作社＋农户”三种农业产业链融资模式,并分析了其主要特点、优势以及主要风险,为合作社融资提供了新思路。     

Farmer cooperatives in China: diverse pathways to sustainable rural development

In the midst of China's agricultural reform, new forms of farmer organization have emerged, some initiated by farmers themselves, but most through government intervention. Based on national survey data complemented by two in-depth case studies of rural cooperatives, an analysis is made of the roles and significance of these new farmer organizations. Chinese rural cooperatives predominantly facilitate economic cooperation and market integration. This is supported by agricultural policies and the Cooperative Law of 2007 oriented towards the commoditization of smallholder farming. There are some cooperatives not primarily motivated by commodity imperatives, but by the fulfilment of agro-ecological and socio-cultural functions. To date, the roles and significance of this non-mainstream type of rural cooperative has not received much attention. If China is to become a ‘green society’ as proclaimed by the government, more attention and support to this type of cooperatives seems warranted.     

农村专业合作组织效率评估及其影响因素研究以山西省原平市为例

目的 农村专业合作组织是推动乡村振兴战略有效落地的重要组织保障之一,探究其效率及影响因素有助于促进新时期农村专业合作组织高质量发展与乡村产业兴旺。方法 文章以传统农区山西省原平市为例,采用Bootstrap-DEA模型评估了126家样本农村专业合作组织效率,并在此基础上结合多元线性回归模型对农村专业合作组织效率的影响因素进行分析。结果 （1）样本农村专业合作组织的经营管理水平整体较高,但仍存在投入冗余的情况,影响农村专业合作组织效率的主要制约因素在于纯技术效率;（2）粮食类合作组织整体效率相较其他两类合作组织差距较为明显,在内部管理方式、资源利用能力、新技术运用等方面问题突出;（3）增强合作组织的人力资本积累和电子商务竞争力是提升合作组织效率的关键,此外,土地细碎化会引发规模不经济,不利于农业生产技术效率改善。结论 要改进传统农区农村专业合作组织效率,建议健全其内部管理运营机制,加强农业技术引进、推广,全面联合、优化粮食类农村专业合作组织,加大对合作组织成员培训的投入力度,深入推进数字乡村发展战略,积极引导农户参与合理高效的土地流转。     

Estimating multiproduct and product‐specific scale economies for agricultural cooperatives

This article estimates multiproduct and product‐specific scale economies, scope economies, and cost efficiency with single and annual cost frontiers using a nonparametric approach. Multiproduct scale and scope economies are found that suggests increasing scale and product diversification can reduce cost for agricultural cooperatives. Many agricultural cooperatives experience economies of scale indicating that variable returns to scale as opposed to constant returns to scale is the appropriate technology for modeling agricultural cooperatives. Product‐specific scale economies for all outputs are close to one indicating that individual outputs are operating close to constant returns to scale. Annual frontier estimates show that cooperatives have become less cost efficient over time, but scale and scope economies remain relatively consistent across years. Further, results show that economic measures obtained from the single frontier are statistically different from those measures calculated from annual frontiers, suggesting that the cost frontier has shifted over time. The trade‐off between cost efficiency and multiproduct scale economies indicates that smaller cooperatives can reduce a higher percentage of cost by increasing the scale of operations rather than just becoming cost efficient. Because larger incentives exist for small cooperatives to increase scale, mergers will likely continue until economies of scale are exhausted in the industry.     

AN APPLICATION OF BASS'S MODEL IN THE ANALYSIS OF DIFFUSION OF COCOA-SPRAYING CHEMICALS AMONG NIGERIAN COCOA FARMERS

Several studies on the process of diffusion of agricultural innovations have recently emerged in the literature. They serve as an important link between studies on the establishment of innovations and those in their impact on the economy. However, previous standard diffusion models used in the analysis of diffusion of agricultural innovations assume that the population of potential adopters is identical and that they are all imitators. This assumption may not be realistic in all cases. Hence, it is argued, in this study, that the population of potential adopters is not identical but consists of both innovators and imitators, and a model incorporating the two categories of potential adopters is employed. This model is also assessed against the standard diffusion model to test its superiority. Although the data on the diffusion of cocoa-spraying chemicals among Nigerian cocoa farmers fit the model well, the result of its statistical evaluation shows little or no improvement over the standard model. This may, however, be due to the nature and composition of the data employed and the need for further refinement of the model.     

“农户+合作社+超市”模式下的农产品价格形成研究——以北京番茄市场为例

农超对接有效缩减了农产品流通环节,有利于建立农户与零售商之间稳定的购销关系,有利于稳定农产品价格,促进农产品市场健康发展。文章基于“农户+合作社+超市”模式,以蔬菜产品为例,分析农超对接模式中的农产品价格形成。研究发现:农户与蔬菜合作社之间的议价能力是决定农产品价格形成的关键;在农户对番茄收购价格议价能力大于合作社的情况下,以完全成本计算的番茄理论均衡收购价格最接近番茄实际收购价格;在合作社目标利润率为15%的情况下,番茄均衡零售价格最接近其实际零售价格。     

Big is efficient: Evidence from agricultural cooperatives in Ethiopia

In Ethiopia, there is a renewed interest in agricultural cooperatives as an institutional tool to improve the welfare of smallholder farmers. One of the pathways through which cooperatives benefit their members is scale economies. However, the establishment of cooperatives in Ethiopia seems to pay little attention to the size of the organizations. This article aims at investigating the effect of size on cost efficiency of agricultural cooperatives. More specifically, the purpose is to examine whether a single cooperative can serve a given number of farmers at a lower cost than two or more smaller cooperatives could. We employ the concept of cost subadditivity to compare the cost efficiency of large versus small cooperatives, and by extension unilateral actions. We estimate a flexible production technology using cross‐sectional cooperative‐level data. Findings show that costs would drop by 78% to 181% if farmers join hands in relatively large rather than small cooperatives.     

基于供销合作社系统的武汉市农产品流通对策研究

为充分利用供销合作社网络完善武汉市农产品流通供应链体系,文章对供销合作总社近10年来的销售业绩进行提取分析,结果表明:供销社是流通领域中符合体制内运作的重要组织,在农产品流通领域中是解决"买难"、"卖难"的可行性方案,是符合农民利益和提高农民收入的重要路径;创建以供销合作社为核心的农产品交易体系,必将对武汉市的农产品流通具有非常显著的促进作用;供销合作社所占有的市场份额所形成的品牌效应将对农产品流通体系的完善有着直接的正向促进作用。以供销合作社作为研究视角,并提出基于武汉市供销合作社的农产品流通系统需要从建立农产品加工生产专用服务体系、加快供销合作社的农产品流通速度以及合理开发农产品流通电商营销渠道等3个方面入手,减少不必要的生产销售环节的同时,加强各供销合作社的合作规模,以切实建立起便利惠民的农产品流通体系,实现再生产环节中农户经济权益的有效保护。     

论我国新型农业合作社的发展战略

为了探索新型农村合作社的发展之路,构建我国新型农业合作社的发展战略,本文对现存农业合作社的内外环境进行分析,基于以往我国多年创办合作社的成功经验,借鉴国外优秀合作社的办社方法,建议将我国农业合作社的发展分为三个战略发展阶段,即自由合作阶段、战略阶段和高级农业合作社阶段。     

Facing financialization: The divergent mutations of agricultural cooperatives in postapartheid South Africa

This paper analyses the transformation of the South African (former) grain cooperatives since 1994. These entities played a key role in the institutional architecture of the apartheid regime, ensuring the domination of white commercial farmers over the sector. Within the framework of the deregulation of the economy and the agricultural sector, such entities faced transformations of modern capitalism, especially the growing power of financial actors and markets. Although white commercial farmers still largely retain these inherited structures, these companies are presently being targeted more and more by private takeovers and/or private equity deals. Based on two specific empirical examples of private equity deals affecting South African grain cooperatives, this paper describes this financialization process in practice, in particular by analysing the interaction between financial and agricultural actors and the alliances on the ground that determine its “success.” In doing so, it details the different trajectories of these (former) cooperatives, highlighting the resilience, mutation, and extinction of commercial agriculture in South Africa.     

Cooperative pricing and scale efficiency: The case of Korean rice processing complexes

Unlike most investor‐owned enterprises, cooperatives often have freedom to choose among a variety of firm objectives. Using 2002–2008 plant‐ and province‐level data, we ask in the present article which of several alternative maximands a Korean cooperative rice processing firm pursues. In contrast to earlier studies, farmer‐member supply functions are incorporated into the cooperative's optimization framework. We show that only large cooperative firms have operated at efficient scale, while small and medium‐sized ones have been scale‐inefficient. Because the latter operate where scale returns are increasing, mergers of small and medium‐sized cooperatives likely would be cost‐reducing and member‐return‐enhancing.     

Testing for the Presence of Financial Constraints in US Agricultural Cooperatives: An Investment Behaviour Approach

This study examines the presence of financial constraints in US agricultural cooperatives. We test the cooperative capital constraint hypothesis with a panel data econometric analysis of agricultural cooperatives’ investment behaviour. Regression results suggest that agricultural cooperatives’ capital expenditures are significantly affected by the availability of internal funds. Results also indicate that the sensitivity of investment to cash flow is correlated with cooperative structural characteristics.